As a Dry Leaf

Posted on 14 december 2025 by yahya7337

How does Sheikh Nazim use the dry leaf image in his talks

Sheikh Nazim uses the “dry leaf” image to teach complete surrender of the seeker to Allah’s will through the guidance of the Prophet and the spiritual master.

## Image of surrender

He describes the ideal murid as “a dry leaf in the wind,” moved entirely by the “wind” of divine inspiration coming through the guide, with no inner resistance or objection. Even if that leaf is blown into fire, it does not complain, symbolizing a heart that accepts every divine decree while saying inwardly, “My Lord is right, I am wrong.”

## Inner and outer obedience

In his talks he explains that this surrender must be both inward and outward: not only outward obedience in actions, but also the absence of hidden complaints, spiritual objections, or ego-based criticism toward Allah, the Prophet, or the shaykh. He presents this state as the peak of good manners on the path and as a condition for rapid spiritual progress, contrasting it with the scattered state of those who still follow their ego.

Traditional Learning

Posted on 4 november 2025 by yahya7337

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Watch: William Chittick discusses the Traditional Approach to Learning

by William Chittick in VideoNovember 4, 2025 — 1 min read

William Chittick spoke on the topic, “The Traditional Approach to Learning” at the Sacred Web Conference held at the University of Alberta in Edmonton on September 23, 2006. Watch the full talk below.

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Well, the Thing is…

Posted on 30 oktober 2025 by yahya7337

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By Frisia Coast Trail

The heart of Western democracies is the joint assembly of Parliament, Cabinet, and High Councils of State. Its Celtic-Germanic origin is the thing, also called ting, ding, or þing in other writings. Today, national assemblies in Scandinavian countries still refer to this ancient tradition. For example, the parliaments of the Faroes Løgting, of Greenland Landsting, of Iceland Alþingi, and of Norway Storting. However, the oldest written attestation of the thing institution comes from a band of Frisian mercenaries in the Roman Imperial Army deployed in Britannia. This was in the third century AD. So, almost 2,000 years ago! Thanks to them, we know that North-Western political arenas can boast of an old and quite successful tradition — and no need to look covetously at the ἐκκλησία (ekklèsia), the assembly of ancient Greek, for understanding western democracies, as nearly all historians do.

The thing is, criticism of our modern assemblies and their ability to build representative consensus is on the rise. According to the THING Project — an international collaboration supported in part by the European Union — the story of the thing serves as a reminder of humanity’s age-old need for robust legal systems and open debate. It also underscores the importance of resolving conflicts without resorting to violence — a lesson that feels especially urgent in an era of accelerating internationalization and globalization.

In this spirit, we will close this blog post with five concrete recommendations for the thing of today: how to strengthen its role and performance within our democracies, how politicians and bureaucrats can reconnect with citizens and pressing social issues, and how to finally cultivate the new administrative culture so long desired yet never achieved.

But before turning to the future of the contemporary thing, we first take a step back — something those in power are often reluctant to do. If that is not your interest, feel free to scroll straight to the end. Our own backward glance focuses, for good reason, on early-medieval Frisia.

1. The Matter of Things

1.1. Frisians introducing the thing to the world

When the Romans arrived in the northwest of continental Europe around the start of the common era, they observed how the local tribes governed themselves. The Roman historian Tacitus offers some of the earliest descriptions of these assemblies, particularly in the river lands of the Netherlands. In his Historiae (ca. AD 100–110), he recounts the Batavian revolt of AD 69, where the leader of the Batavii, Julius Civilis, convened the nobles and the fiercest warriors of his people in a sacred grove.

When he saw that darkness and merriment had inflamed their hearts, he [Julius Civilis] addressed them. Starting with a reference to the glory and renown of their nation, he went on to catalogue the wrongs, the depredations and all the other woes of slavery. The alliance, he said, was no longer observed on the old terms: they were treated as chattels. (…) He received wide support for his words. Barbaric rites and ancestral oaths followed which bounded everyone together.Historiae, Tacitus

artist impression of the Germanic *thing*, after a detail of Column of Marcus Aurelius (between 176-193)

By the way, the Cananefates — a tribe living in the area of present-day city of The Hague — and the Frisians from north of the River Rhine also joined the revolt against Rome. The Frisians attacked the Roman limes (‘border’) fortresses along the River Rhine with a naval fleet. A band of Frisians and Chauci pushed even far upstream, reaching Tolbiacum, the site of today’s town of Zülpich in Germany, not far from the city of Bonn. There, the warriors met a rather ignoble end: the local people invited them to a lavish banquet with plenty of wine, and once the drunken Frisians and Chauci had fallen asleep, the doors were barred and the hall was set on fire. If you think such reckless military behaviour is a thing of the past, just consider the steady decline of European defence budgets over the last fifty years.

Concerning the thing Tacitus also wrote:

On matters of minor importance only the chiefs deliberate, on major affairs, the whole community; but, even where the commons have the decision, the case is carefully considered in advance by the chiefs. Except in case of accident or emergency they assembly on fixed days (…) When the mass so decide, they take their seats fully armed. Silence is then demanded by the priests, who on that occasion have also the power to enforce obedience. Then such hearing is given to the king or chief, as age, rank, military distinction or eloquence can secure; but is rather their prestige as counsellors than their authority that tells. If a proposal displeases them, the people roar out their dissent; if they approve, they clash their spears. No form of approval can carry more honour than praise expressed by arms.Germania, Tacitus

Tacitus either did not know or chose not to mention the native name for the assemblies of the Germanic tribes. Instead, he used the Roman term concilium. Fortunately, as noted in the introduction to this blog post, the Frisians themselves preserved the original word for us. In the third century, a Roman auxiliary unit of Frisian mercenaries was stationed along Hadrian’s Wall in Britannia, near the fort of Vindolanda at the ancient Frisian settlement of Verovicum, located at Chapel Hill — today known as Housesteads. There, the Frisians erected a buff sandstone altar and inscribed upon it these legendary, if still somewhat enigmatic, words (De Kort et al 2023, Mees 2023):

DEO MARTI THINCSO ET DUABUS ALAISIAGIS BEDE ET FIMMILENE ET N AUG GERM CIVES TUIHANTI VSLM

“to the god Mars Thincso and the two Alaisiagae, Beda and Fimmilena, and to the Divinity of the Emperor the Germans. Tribesmen of Twente fulfilled (their) vow, willingly, deservedly” (after Mees 2023)

The name Tuihanti refers to the present-day region of Twente in the eastern Netherlands. Historians, however, have often interpreted the Tuihanti tribesmen as Frisians (Nijdam 2021). Another explanation is that the cives Tuihanti had simply become members of the Frisian unit stationed at Housesteads (Mees 2023). Supporting the Frisian connection is a second sandstone altar dedicated by the cuneus Frisiorum (the Frisian cavalry unit), which happens to be the most elaborate inscription from Roman Britain in the UK. In addition, pottery of distinctly Frisian material culture has been unearthed at Chapel Hill, Housesteads — closely resembling pottery found in the north of the province of Noord Holland, part of the Frisii’s homeland at the time, including the Wadden Sea island of Texel (Mees 2023).

Furthermore, the part of the inscription reading Deo Mars Thincso (also Mars Thincsus) translates as “god Mars of the Thing.” Thincso derives from the Proto-Germanic word þingą, rendered in the Old Frisian language as thing (Mees 2023). Mars Thincsus must be understood as Tîwas, the god who presided over war, embodied law and order, and served as protector of the thing. In this sense, he had much in common with the deities Dios, Zeus, and Theus (Schuyf 2019). The god Tîwas — also known as Tîwes, Teiwaz, Tiwaz, or Tuw — was, in early Germanic times, a supreme idol. In Scandinavia he was worshipped as Tyr. The rune ᛏ in the Anglo-Frisian futhorc alphabet is named tir after this god, a word that also signified ‘glory’ in the Old English language.

Might it be more than coincidence that in the province of Friesland a relatively large number of small statues of the god Mars have been unearthed — eight in total, compared with only six in the rest of the Netherlands? Could this be linked to the central role of the thing in Frisian society? (Visser 2023)

The names of the two idols, Beda and Fimmilena, on the same pillar inscription at Fort Housesteads correspond to the bodthing and fimelthing, both of which are also recorded in medieval Old Frisian law books from around 1100 onward — an astonishing nine centuries later! These terms referred to specific types of people’s assemblies. Perhaps the distinction was as follows: the ‘fixed thing‘ was under the protection of the god Thincsus, the ‘extraordinary thing‘ under Beda, and the ‘informative or non-decision-making thing‘ under Fimmilena (Iversen 2013).

One theory suggests that the Alsaisiagae gods — Beda and Fimmilena — represent early forms of the valkyries. Beda embodied storms, Fimmilena symbolized wind and movement, and Mars Thincsus oversaw the sky and weather, much like his Norse counterpart Teiwaz. The bodthing may have been either a commanded or a requested assembly (Mees 2023).

It is fascinating that this pillar not only attests to Frisian presence in Roman Britain but also provides the oldest written evidence of the (word) thing. Hear, hear! A hidden gem from the obscure Frisians and Twentenaren (‘people of the region of Twente’). Truly, such democratic dudes, those Frisian mercenary soldiers. Moreover — we insist — it is high time for peripheral Frisia to join the THING Project, too. One cannot help but wonder whether these thing-worshiping soldiers at the frontier ever reached consensus on the strategy before going into battle, and whether that was the real reason Hadrian’s Wall eventually fell to the wild Scots

For more on these ancient soldiers of fortune, see our blog post Frisian Mercenaries in the Roman Army: Fighting for Honour and Glory.

The Proto-Germanic form of the word thing is þingsō or þingą, derived from þengaz or þinhaz, meaning ‘certain time.’ In the Gothic language, þeihs simply meant ‘time’ (Mees 2023). Thus, the thing originally denoted a specific, fixed time on the lunar calendar when the people gathered, giving rise to its meaning as a folkmoot (compare Old English folcgemōt), assembly, or court of justice. Indeed, the right time — as well as the right place — was essential for a thing assembly (Sanmark 2017).

Interestingly, the German and Dutch words for Tuesday — Dienstag and dinsdag — literally mean ‘thing-day.’ Remarkably, Tuesday remains the central day for the Dutch parliament to convene, or in the Dutch language, te vergaderen (‘to gather/ meet/ discuss’). Unlike in German and Dutch, English, Frisian, and the Scandinavian languages preserve the connection to the patron god of the thing: Tuesday (Tíwes dæg in Old English), tiisdei in Frisian, and ti(r)sdag in Scandinavian languages, all named after the god Tîwas or Tyr. As said, the god Tyr was the protector of the thing.

In Dutch, expressions such as in geding zijn (‘being inside the thing, being disputed’), een geding aanspannen (‘filing a thing, starting a lawsuit’), ergens iets op afdingen (‘questioning something or putting it into perspective’), dingstig (‘in dispute’), and even the popular informal phrase dit wordt een dingetje (‘this will become a small thing, that is, an issue’) are still in daily use. Related terms include bedingen (‘to stipulate’) and mededinging (‘competition’) (Rauwerdink 2023). A dading in Belgian law — a legal agreement to resolve a conflict — is another modern trace of this ancient tradition. On the border of Belgium and the Netherlands, the Dinghuis (‘thing house’) in Maastricht is a former late-medieval courthouse. In short, the Dutch verb dingen still carries the sense of ‘to debate’ or ‘to discuss.’

Besides Tacitus‘ record, we have not much information on how the thing functioned during the Roman period. The origin of folksgearkomsten (in the Mid Frisian language) or Volksversammlungen (in the German language) ‘assemblies’ might be in the Late Iron Age, a period of major social transformation. Check our blog post Our Civilization — It All Began with Piracy in which we explain how this social transformation process went, and how important large-scale sea raiding was actually part of it. It is in this early period that in the central river area of the Netherlands, indeed the area of the Batavian uprising mentioned by Tacitus earlier this blog post, regional cult places emerge, indicating the manifestation of ethnic groups. Archaeological research at Empel and Elst, and very recently at Tiel, all in Central Netherlands has proven ritual feasting at these cult places. These were sanctuaries where the community gathered in public space, and where the members of the community took part in a fundamental activity for the social and biological reproduction of the group (Fernández & Roymans 2015). From this development the thing evolved. Also explaining why thing sites, or Dinghügeln in the German language, regularly can be found at ancient cult sites.

Beyond Tacitus’ account, little is known about how the thing functioned during the Roman period. The origins of folksgearkomsten (in Mid Frisian) or Volksversammlungen (in German) — ‘assemblies’ — likely trace back to the Late Iron Age, a period of major social transformation. For more detail, see our blog post Our Civilization — It All Began with Piracy, which explores this process and the important role of large-scale sea raiding in it.

During this early period, regional cult sites emerged in the central river area of the Netherlands — the same region involved in the Batavian uprising mentioned by Tacitus. Archaeological research at the towns of Empel, Elst, and, more recently, Tiel has revealed ritual feasting at these cult sites. These sanctuaries were public spaces where communities gathered to perform fundamental activities essential for the social and biological reproduction of the group (Fernández & Roymans 2015). From these gatherings, the thing eventually evolved, explaining why thing sites, or Dinghügeln in the German language, are often located at ancient cult locations.

As mentioned, a very recent (2017) and impressive addition to the known cult sites in the central river area is the massive shrine near the town of Tiel. This grave-mound solar calendar, estimated to be around 4,000 years old, has already been dubbed the ‘Stonehenge of the Netherlands.’ The largest mound measures 20 meters in diameter (Neijens 2023).

grave mound solar calendar at Tiel, ca 2,000 BC – by Alexander van de Bunt

1.2. The medieval thing

Starting in the Early Middle Ages, our knowledge of the thing becomes clearer, largely due to the first codified law books of Germanic societies. The medieval thing was a popular assembly in which delegates — primarily so-called freemen — from the relevant region gathered to discuss legal, military, political, and religious matters. In this capacity, the thing played a crucial role in conflict resolution and in preventing prolonged feuds and wars (Sanmark 2009).

The thing site could also be a dangerous place. It was a central venue of gift-giving, where authority was both consolidated and contested (Tys 2018) — a true political arena. To safeguard order during assemblies, a so-called “peace” was proclaimed, referred to in Old Frisian as frede. Comparable terms appear in other early Germanic languages: freoth in Old English and friðu in Old Saxon. The modern Mid Frisian word for peace remains frede.

A thing site was regarded as sacred ground, where all participants were considered equal. Crimes committed there, particularly killings during a proclaimed frede, incurred significantly harsher penalties (Sanmark 2009). The same applied to the high-medieval Upstalsboom assemblies in East Frisia, where injuring or killing a delegate en route to the thing was punished more severely. See our blog posts You killed a man? That’ll be 1 weregeld, please and The Treaty of the Upstalsboom. Why solidarity is not the core of a collective for further discussion of penalties and the institution of the (thing) peace. In medieval Scandinavia, the practice was broadly similar: the thing peace was known as griðr or friðr (Sanmark 2017).

The class of freemen — though with regional variations as to who was admitted — belonged to the higher social strata of Germanic society. It is likely that members of the nobiles also participated and held voting rights, whereas serfs or thralls were excluded. Women, too, were generally barred from participation. This exclusion is hardly surprising: even modern democracies only granted women the right to stand for election comparatively recently, in 1918 in Germany and 1919 in the Netherlands. Old boys’ networks, it seems, are remarkably resilient.

There are, however, indications that before Christianization a small number of women — particularly landowners or widows — did participate in thing assemblies and even exercised voting rights (Sanmark 2017). For freemen, by contrast, participation was not only a right but also a duty.

In today’s world, the freemen might be compared first with the early modern regent elite, and more recently with the political and bureaucratic elite. One might even see faint echoes of the thing in institutions such as the British House of Lords and, to a lesser extent, the Dutch Senate — assemblies still marked by grey, distinguished-looking figures with exotic surnames. Admittedly, they are far less warrior-like.

Law Rock in Þingvellir, Iceland by W. G. Collingwood

No doubt Montesquieu would turn in his grave at the thought of the thing uniting all branches of government — administering justice, legislating, and even executing laws — within a single institution. For the Germanic peoples, however, such a concentration of powers was acceptable because the thing, bound to its sacred time and place, was seen as above the need for checks and balances through separation of powers (Corthals 2014). The personal conviction of Johan de Witt, statesman and Grand Pensionary of Holland, in the ‘never-ending gathering’ and commonwealth through consensus as the foundation of the seventeenth-century Dutch Republic (Panhuysen 2005), may in some respects echo this older regional tradition of dialogue.

Thet forma: theth hia gaderkome enes a iera to Upstelesbame a tyesdey anda there pinxstera wika and ma ther eratte alle tha riucht, ther fresa halda skolde. Jef aeng mon eng bethera wiste, theth ma thet lichtere lette and ma theth bethere helde.

The first (law): that they will gather once every year at Upstalsboom on the Tuesday in the week of Pentecost and that they will discuss there all laws that the Frisians must uphold. When someone knows a better law, that they will give up the lesser and uphold the better. (source: the Zeven Overkeuren ‘zeven higher laws’ of the First Hunsinger Codex, early 14th century. Old Frisian language, transl. after Vries 2007)

Decision-making at the thing was (1) conducted under oath, as remains the case today; (2) held in the open air and witnessed by the public, a practice still partly preserved; and (3) sanctioned by the ancestors and the gods. It was, in short, a sacred act. Dutch laws, for example, are still signed with the phrase bij de gratie Gods (‘by the grace of God’), preserving a sacral undertone. This sanctity was not achieved through prayer, but through strict adherence to procedures, prescribed times, and designated locations in order to reach consensus. Likewise, in many countries today, members of parliament continue to take an oath or solemn affirmation upon assuming office.

This sacral, non-rational dimension of law remains relevant even today. At its core lies the conviction that law is just — that it embodies the ‘good.’ Such a norm can no longer be subjected to objective verification, except through collective reasoning and shared conviction. However intangible, and almost sacral in character, this conviction constitutes both the normative foundation and the ultimate safeguard of the democratic legal order, today. No armies can protect it.

Despite its sacral status, the thing was often situated at boundary zones between districts and at some distance from the residences of lawmen and local elites, in order to safeguard its neutrality (Sanmark 2009). With the rise of feudalism and the centralization of power, however, thing sites were frequently (re)located in the vicinity of the residences of local rulers — or, conversely, rulers established their residences near the sites. In either case, the assemblies ceased to be neutral spaces and instead became instruments of royal or feudal authority in the High Middle Ages.

In early-medieval Anglo-Saxon England the people’s assembly was known as mæðel or folcgemо̄t. The thing was usurped by the witana gemо̄t or wiðrædde (Mees 2023), better known as the Witan ‘witness-list’. An assembly of the kingdom’s senior magistrates like bishops, ealdormen and thegns, that functioned as a body for the king in achieving and presenting consensus. A meeting for discussion, consultation and law-making, being the king’s advisors. Contrary to the thing, the Witan did not gather at fixed times and places (Roach 2013). The Witan still had some parallels with the thing. King Edgar of England (944-975) was crowned at the Witan at Pentecost in the year 959. The Tuesday after Pentecost was, for example, also the time for the assembly of the Upstalsboom.

In early-medieval Anglo-Saxon England, the people’s assembly was known as mæðel or folcgemōt. Over time, it was largely supplanted by the witana gemōt or wiðrædde (Mees 2023), better known as the Witan, or ‘council of witnesses.’ This assembly comprised the kingdom’s senior magistrates — bishops, ealdormen, and thegns — and functioned as an advisory body to the king, helping him achieve and present consensus. The Witan served as a forum for discussion, consultation, and law-making, operating as the king’s advisors.

Unlike the thing, the Witan did not meet at fixed times or places (Roach 2013). Nevertheless, it retained certain parallels with the thing. For instance, King Edgar of England (944–975) was crowned at the Witan at Pentecost in 959 — a timing echoing the Upstalsboom thing assembly, which traditionally convened on the Tuesday after Pentecost.

In Mid Frisia and East Frisia — encompassing the coastal regions of what are now the northern Netherlands and north-western Germany — the thing was not usurped by lords, counts, or kings. Feudalism in these areas largely collapsed during the High Middle Ages, allowing the thing to continue functioning without central rulers until roughly the end of the fifteenth century — a situation that was quite exceptional in Western history. The thing, embedded within a formal legal and honor-based society that political Frisia remained part of until the early modern period, continued to serve as the primary arena for law-making, judicial proceedings, and political affairs.

By contrast, in Scandinavia, much of continental Europe, and the British Isles, feudal structures solidified into centrally governed states, concentrating power in the hands of a few, and subordinating the thing to kings and emperors. Until around 1500, therefore, Frisia offered a remarkable window into a political community organized for many centuries without state institutions or centralized authority.

In other words, not only can the Frisians claim the earliest mention of the thing by a bunch of Frisian mercenaries stationed at Hadrian’s Wall in the Late Iron Age, they can also claim the longest continuous functioning of the thing as a classic folkmoot — an institution of self-governance. This period extended roughly from the first century AD until around 1500. Pause for a moment and let the numbers sink in: one-and-a-half millennia of popular political assemblies.

In a sense, this tradition was revived shortly thereafter and continued for another two centuries. By 1588, with the emergence of the Dutch Republic following a remarkable and successful bourgeois revolution, this ancient republican practice was restored — a historical continuity that receives surprisingly little attention from scholars. Of course, with the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century — what historical irony! — this tradition was ultimately curtailed in the Netherlands, as the Dutch Republic gave way to a conventional kingdom.

the Entmoot, and assembly of the Ents, inspired by Lord of the Rings of Tolkien

The location of the assembly itself further reinforced its sacral character. Things were often situated near water, on natural slopes or mounds, or at pre-Christian cult sites, as noted earlier. The idea of the thing as a mound — functioning as an actual or symbolic island surrounded by water — underscored its sacred significance (Sanmark 2017). Research on mound toponyms in Britain shows that the Old Norse haugr predominates in the Danelaw region, while the Old English hlāw is common in the Midlands, and beorg appears specifically in association with thing sites in southern England (Tudor Skinner & Semple 2016). In the Netherlands, the elements beorg or berg can likewise be found in toponyms such as Sommeltjesberg and Schepelenberg, both of which are thought to have functioned as thing sites (see further below).

Near the village of Dunum in the region of Ostfriesland, Germany, the toponym Rabbelsberg, or Radbodsberg (‘Radbod’s mound’), survives — possibly marking the site of an ancient thing. This artificial hill, or tumulus, dates back as much as 4,000 years. According to an East Frisian saga, Rabbelsberg and the nearby loch Hünensloot were formed after a domestic quarrel between two giants. The wife brought food to her husband in the field, but he, displeased, threw the pot away. The impact of the pot on the ground supposedly created both the loch and the mound. Later tradition held that the mound became the burial site of King Radbod of Frisia. Beyond explaining the local geography, the saga also amusingly suggests that even giants could have domestic disputes.

Some Scandinavian thing sites simply carry a mythical or magical atmosphere, like those of Gulating in Norway, Þingvellir ‘assembly plains’ on Iceland, and Tingwal on Orkney. A landscape stressing the sacred proceedings at the thing. The thing site itself was usually enclosed. This could be an enclosure shaped by natural boundaries, whether or not completed with handmade earthen structures. In addition, the thing site could also be marked by stringing a rope or a fence.

See also Must Justice be Blind

In early-medieval the Netherlands, the spot in open air where justice was being dispensed, was encircled with cords, too. In the city of Amsterdam in the early modern period, this space was called De Vierschaar ‘the four part’, referring to the four benches placed in a square where the sworn men were seated to administer justice. Later, after justice was being done inside the town hall, the room was still named De Vierschaar and still accessible to the public through open windows facing the street, i.e., Dam square (Thuijs 2020).

The thing always took place on Tuesdays under a new moon or full moon. Contrary to today, the thing only gathered a few times a year. Furthermore, the thing was moderated by a law-speaker or, later, a priest. Law-speakers were wise men capable of memorizing and reciting the laws (Ahlness 2020). Tasks of the law-speakers during the thing were: guiding the ruling in legal disputes, the administration and the execution of decisions, and to speak on behalf of peoples and communities. The law-speaker developed in Scandinavia into the office of lagmän (Finland), lagmann (Norway), laghman (Denmark), and løgmaður (Faroes). Of course, the United Kingdom still has a Speaker of the House of Commons. In the Netherlands’ parliament, the speaker is called voorzitter, which is a word related to the early-medieval typical Frisian god Fo(r)seti, meaning ‘presiding’. The office of the president of Iceland is named Forseti Íslands. Forseti was a son of the righteous god Baldr and the god of law and justice. The Germanic variant of the idol Maät of the ancient Egyptians but for the living, so to say. Forseti was being worshipped by the Frisians on the island of Heligoland at the North Sea (see further below).

INTERMEZZO

The Woolsack — Another speaker, the Lord Speaker of the House of Lords of the United Kingdom, sits on a red sack of wool, the Woolsack. It is a testimony of how important wool has been for the country between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. England, Scotland, and Wales had become the producers of wool in Europe, and their elite earned dazzling amounts of money with it. Today, the sack contains wool from all parts of Britain and the Commonwealth. “Ecclesia, foemina, lana” (‘churches, women, wool’) were the three miracles of England (Joseph Hall, 1574-1656). Read our blog posts Come to the rescue The Rolling Sheep and Haute couture from the salt marshes to understand the importance of sheep and wool in the North Sea region.

In medieval Frisia, the law-speaker was called asega. The component a means ‘law’ and the component sega means ‘to say’. Compare with the modern Dutch verb zeggen meaning ‘to say’. In the late-eighth-century Lex Frisionum (‘law of the Frisans’), written in the Latin language, reference is made to this office, called iudex or sapientes (Nijdam 2021). The asega was not in any way a judge but an authority of law. An expert of justice and of proceedings during the thing. The asega, therefore, had gezag. A Dutch word meaning ‘authority’ and that derives from the verb zeggen meaning ‘to say/speak’. Related to it is, among others, the Dutch word gezeggelijk meaning ‘following/obedient’ (Verbrugge 2025). In other words, the asega was the one who could say or tell (the law) others to follow and to listen — the speaker. As a side remark, interestingly the Old Greek word ἐκκλησία (ekkèlsia) for the ancient parliament stems from the Old Greek verb ἐκκαλέω meaning ‘to call/to summon’.

The Fivelgoer Handschrift ‘Fivelgo manuscript’, dated circa 1450, contains the so-called Asega Law. These are the standard formulas how the thing gathering commenced, written in the Old Frisian language. The first formula for the thing to start, a dialogue between the asega and the skelta ‘judge’, sounded as follows:

Asega, ist thingtid? Alsa hit is.

Asega, hot age wi to dwane in thisse nie iera?

I agen frehe to bonnane […]. Thet agen tha liude to loviane and I agen iuwe bon theron to ledzane.Law-speaker, is it thing time? So it is. Law-speaker, what do we have to do in this new year? You must pronounce peace […]. The people must vow to this and you must proclaim your ban on it (transl. O. Vries).

Interestingly, according to Old Frisian codices, Widukin(d) was the first asega of the Frisians (Vries 2007). Widukind was the late eighth-century leader of the Saxons who revolted against the Frankish expansion. This uprising was joined by the neighbouring Frisians.

In some respects, the old office of the Lord Chancellor in Britain resembled that of the asega, at least until the reforms introduced by the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005. Until then, the Lord Chancellor combined the roles of head of the judiciary and Speaker of the House of Lords. Since the 2005 reform, however, the Lord Chancellor no longer presides over the House of Lords.

At the village of Bernsterburen in the province of Friesland a whalebone staff with a T-shaped handle was found by a Mennonite minister in the year 1881. It is dated around 800 and pretty unique, because it is the only artifact known of this type in and outside the Netherlands. The runic inscription ᛏᚢᛞᚪ ᚫᛚ ᚢᛞᚢᚴI(?)ᛌᚦᚢ ᛏᚢᛞᚪ says: “tuda æwudu (or æludu) kius þu tuda“. Translated this could be ‘Tuda, witness(es) choose you, Tuda’, or ‘Tuda, witness(es) he made, Tuda’. De personal name Tuda stems from Germanic word þeuð meaning ‘people’. So, if it is not a personal name, it might also address the gathered people at the thing. Therefore, one of the theories is that the staff is a ritual attribute of law speaking. Maybe used by the asega during the thing (Knol & Looijenga 1990, Looijenga 2003, IJssennagger 2012, Looijenga 2023).

whalebone staff of Bernsterburen, ca. 800 — Koninklijke Fries genootschap

Another intriguing artifact is the wooden miniature sword excavated at the village of Arum in the province of Friesland, too, dated eighth century. It carries the runic inscription ᛗᛞᚫ ᛒᚩᛞᚪ to be pronounced as ‘edæ boda,’ meaning something like ‘oath messenger’ (Looijenga 2003). Earlier in this blog post, we discussed the bodthing, the commanded or requested thing. Therefore, we offer another translation, namely ‘oath commanded.’ In the Dutch language still pretty recognisable, namely: geboden eed. We like to imagine that the delegates of the thing had to make an oath on this wooden sword, and the sword lay visibly for everyone in the circle, because real weapons were not allowed at the meetings. Contrary to Looijenga, other scholars argue the inscription cannot be read as an oath since the Old Frisian word for that would have been eth and not edæ (Nijdam, Spiekhout & Van Dijk 2023).

Interestingly, another (piece of a) miniature sword, this time made of whale bone, with two runic inscriptions and found in former Frisia, too, has been preserved, namely that of the terp village of Rasquert in the province of Groningen. One inscription is too eroded to be read anymore. The other inscription Mᚳᚢᛗᚨᛞᚳᛚᚩᚳᚪ reads ekumæðkloka (ek, Umæ ð(i)k loka) which translates as `me Umæ [personal name] write in you’ (Buma 1966). Other say the inscriptions reads edumæditoka but do not know what it means (Nijdam, Spiekhout & Van Dijk 2023).

Besides the asega, the frana played an important part during the thing gatherings. The frana was the substitute of the count or the schout, i.e., local official tasked with administration and law-enforcement, during the high-medieval period, when Frisia was governed through the feudal system for some time, and presided the thing. Later, during the Late Middle Ages when Frisia no longer was governed by feudal lords and all state structures had crumbled, the office of the frana was replaced by the grietman. The republican office of grietman, which was an elected local judge annex governor, rotated each year (Nijdam 2022).

Before the sixth century, in the regions of Austrasia, i.e., Frankish kingdom, Frisia, and Saxony, there existed three levels of assembly. These were: (1) the centena, also called herað or hundred, (2) the pagus, also called þriðjungr or fjórðungr, and (3) the civitas, also called fylki. Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, similar tripartite systems are found in Scandinavia and Iceland of which we have already mentioned the names above (Iversen 2013). The level of the centena was the lowest level of the thing. The mid-level was that of the pagus, in the Germanic speech called a gau. In the province of Friesland the word gau evolved into go. To this day the Dutch speak of gauw. With the emergence of the big European kingdoms, the pagi and its thing transformed into comitati, i.e. shires and counties. The highest level of the thing was that of the civitas.

As is the case in Scandinavia, locating thing sites in the territory of former Frisia is troublesome, too. The thing was an occasional, short open-air venue, with probably only temporarily shelters for the participants, like huts and tents. As a consequence, the thing almost left no traces in the soil to be found through archaeological research today. Nevertheless, a few thing sites have been located and excavated, like the ones on Greenland and Iceland (Sanmark 2009). Thing sites in these countries had more solid ‘shelter facilities’ recognizable for archaeologists, because travel distances for participants to the thing might have been greater and the weather harsher. Demanding more sturdy shelters. For historians, too, it is difficult to get a firm grip, since historical sources almost make no reference to thing assemblies, let alone that old texts give away the coordinates. Besides archaeology, some thing sites can be assumed based on toponyms, like evidently with the components ding, ting or, in the Middle Dutch speech, dijs. Might the town name Tating on the peninsula of Eiderstedt in the region of Nordfriesland in Germany be a thing site, too?

centena thing

In the case of Frisia, there is almost nothing known about the thing at the centena ‘hundred’ level, also called hundred organisation — in early-medieval England comparable with the hundredal. For West Frisia, the coastal zone from, let’s say, the town of Knokke-Heist in Flanders to the Wadden Sea island of Texel in the province of Noord Holland, it might be possible these local things were combined with the early-medieval cogge districts, and thus the institute of the heercogge ‘war-cog’. Think of the polder ‘Vier Noorder Koggen’ in the region of Westfriesland near the town of Medemblik in the province of Noord Holland. The heercogge or herekoge was a kind of conscription for the inhabitants of a cogge or kogge district, who had the obligation to provide a boat with warriors annex oarsmen in case of seaborn threats (De Graaf 2004, Van der Tuuk 2007, 2012). For more facts worth knowing concerning heercogge, consult the intermezzo ‘Conscription in the Early Middle Ages’ in our blog post A Frontier known as Watery Mess: the Coast of Flanders.

A Germanic moot by Charles Rochussen (1877)

In the southern coastal zone of Norway, district assemblies also dealing with the coastal defence, were called skipreiða or skiplagh in eastern Sweden. More inland in Sweden and Norway, the centena thing was called herað. Besides a military organization it also dealt with other matters relevant for the community (Ødegaard 2013). In modern Sweden it is called härad and in modern Norway herred. In the region of Svealand in Sweden it was called hundari. Its origin, therefore, to deliver a band of hundred warriors (Sanmark 2017).

From research into centena thing sites in the region of Skåne in Sweden we know these were generally located near old roads in sight of execution places, i.e., the gallows, close to but never within the premises of villages, and often on the boundaries of church parishes (Svensson 2015). At the same time, the location of the thing sites of the hundred were not cast in concrete and could be moved from time to time, albeit on average within a radius of no more than 10 kilometers. Communication routes, road and water, and the (changing) geography of power seem to have been decisive for determining the location, like fords through waterways. Rivers and streams, especially, could be holy and symbolize the boundary between the world of the living and the dead. Furthermore, in the case of south-eastern Sweden, the assemblies of the hundred continued to be held in the open air throughout the Middle Ages (Sanmark 2009).

The centena thing had mandate to decide on capital crimes, explaining the visual proximity of the gallows. Hence, cash on the barrel. Because of, among others, presence of gallows on top of Donderberg Hill, next to Grebbeberg Hill near the town of Rhenen in the Central Netherlands, we do not rule out that Grebbeberg Hill might have been an old thing site, too. Possibly even under jurisdiction of Frisian rulers for a while. Read our blog post Don’t believe everything they say about sweet Cunera for more on the fascinating history of Grebbeberg Hill.

A question concerning the execution of the judgement in capital crimes, is whether these were done on a fixed time. In Amsterdam of the early modern period, executions always did take place at noon on Saturdays (Thuijs 2020).

pagus thing

The pagus is considered the oldest building block in the ‘administrative organisation’ of Frisia. The pagi of early-medieval Frisia have been firmly established through historic research, and it shows that its boundaries were often defined by rivers (Nijdam 2021). In total sixteen pagi have been identified (De Langen & Mol 2021). These are from south to north along the North Sea coast the pagi: (1) Scheldeland, i.e., the mouth of the River Scheldt, (2) Maasland, i.e., the mouth of the River Meuse, (3) Rijnland, i.e., the mouth of the River Rhine, (4) Kennemerland, (5) Wieringen, (6) Texel, (7) Westergo, (8) Oostergo, (9) Hunsingo, (10) Fivelingo, (11) Norderland, (12) Federgo, (13) Eemsgo, (14) Harlingerland, (15) Östringen, and (16) Rustringen.

(most of) the pagi of early-medieval Frisia by J.A. Mol

Beside these sixteen pagi, also the four pagi Niftarlake, Flandrenis, Rodanensis and, perhaps, Wasia (Land van Waas) should be included as being part of early-medieval Frisia. In the latter, at least the area of Vier Ambachten in the current region of Zeelandic Flanders, also early-medieval Frisian law was being practiced. Read our blog post A Frontier known as Watery Mess: the Coast of Flanders for more information about the southern sway of the Frisians. For more information about Frisian pagus Nifterlake, i.e., the area of the River Stichtse Vecht in the province of Utrecht; check our blog post Attingahem Bridge, NY. Therefore, twenty pagi in total, and a same number of thing sites existed in Frisia in the Early Middle Ages. The thing of the pagus level gathered three times a year. In Scandinavian countries the regional thing is commonly called althing or alþingi ‘everyone’s gathering’. Of course, always on a Tuesday, too.

Evidence of thing sites in Frisia is basically circumstantial, but the following six sites or places are quite probable (Dijkstra 2011, Nijdam 2021). From south to north these are: the town of Naaldwijk for pagus Maasland, the toponym Luttige Geest at the town of Katwijk for pagus Rijnland, the toponym Schepelenberg at the town of Heemskerk for pagus Kennemerland, the toponym Sommeltjesberg near the village of De Waal for pagus Texel, the town of Franeker for pagus Westergo, and the town of Dokkum for pagus Oostergo. So, six down and fourteen thing sites still to go.

Another thing site might have been at Bruges, of the pagus Flandrensis. From the late tenth century, it is known a placitum generale ‘everyone’s gathering’, also called gouwding, took place here (Henderikx 2021). Another thing site, that of the pagus Scheldeland, must have been on the island of Walcheren in the province of Zeeland. From the Vita sancti Willibrordi ‘life of Saint Willibrord’ written by Abbot Thiofrid of the Abbey of Echternach in 1103, we know that at least early in the twelfth century gouwding meetings were held on the island. Where exactly, we do not know. Maybe near the modern town of Domburg or near portus ‘port town’ Middelburg, but possibly the village of Kats, see below, is a good candidate as well.

When, in the High Middle Ages, the count of Holland asked for the levy of troops, the so-called heervaart, this could only be done at three places: at the modern village of Kats on the island of Noord-Beveland in the province of Zeeland, at the modern village of Katwijk in the province of Zuid-Holland, and on the already mentioned Schepelenberg in the province of Noord-Holland. A heervaart meant that the so-called coggen or koggen, mentioned earlier this blog post, which were territorial units stemming from the Early Middle Ages, had to provide troops for war. Of origin, the heervaart was a scipheervaerde or skiplede, meaning that the (heer)kogge district, which is the name of a ship type of Frisian origin too, had to deliver a boat with armed oarsmen in case of a military threat (De Graaf 2004).

Of course, the etymology of the word kat or cat in the placenames Kats and Katwijk might be interesting. However, it apparently is one of the more hard-to-interpret words (Van Berkel & Samplonius 2018). One explanation might be a ‘driveway’, which would fit a place of gathering.

Lastly, local folklore has it that at Mertsel in the city of Antwerp a thing was located, too, but we have not found any scholarly support for it. The location could be fitting, though, next to the River Scheldt and near the border of two parishes as well.

We have plotted the plausible thing sites (of the pagus level; the althing) of Frisia in a map:

https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1SUufkehsO1m38OGyTDT31gvPwjIECx91

civitas thing

The thing of the civitas level, the high level or top-level thing, is quite obscure as well. These meetings probably took place once a year, and probably at Midsummer (Sanmark 2017). Concerning Frisia, based on the late eighth-century administrative distinction of the Lex Frisionum of three regions, it is assumed there was a civitas thing for:

the part of Frisia inter Flehi et Sincfalam, that is, West Frisia between the River Vlie and Sincfala, which is the coastal plain of West Flanders;
the part of Frisia inter Laubachi et Flehum, that is, Mid Frisia (also Central Frisia) between the River Lauwers and the River Vlie, and;
the part of Frisia inter Laubachi et Wisaram, that is, East Frisia between the River Lauwers and the River Weser.

Most laws of these three civitas jurisdictions were similar but with some differences, especially on the height of tariffs for compensation. Check our blog post You killed a man? That’ll be 1 weregeld, please to understand how compensation for committed crimes was organized in the feud-society of high and late-medieval Frisia.

Not of the Frisians but of their ‘cousins’ the Saxons, a relevant account concerning the thing assembly organization has been preserved in the anonymous Vita Lebuini Antiqua ‘the old Life of Saint Lebuinus’ (Sanmark 2017). Saint Albuinus, Apostle of the Frisians, was active in Frisia and Saxony and died around the year 775 at the town of Deventer in the Netherlands. The relevant passage of the account of the Vita is the following:

In olden times the Saxons had no king but appointed rulers over each pagus; and their custom was to hold a general meeting once a year in the centre of Saxony near the river Weser at a place Marclo. There all the leaders used to gather together and they were joined by twelve noblemen from each pagus with as many freemen and serfs. There they confirmed the laws, gave judgement on outstanding cases and by common consent drew up plans for the coming year on which they could act either in peace or war.Vita Lebuini Antiqua

The site Marclo, supposedly near the River Weser, is more than interesting. The etymology of Marclo is mark meaning ‘(border) land, demarcated area’, and lo meaning ‘light, open forest’ (Van Berkel & Samplonius 2018). Furthermore, there is a place name Markelo, called Marclo in old documents, in the Netherlands today. Located in Saxon cultural area, not far from the town of Deventer where Saint Lebuinus died; 25 kilometers as the crow flies. Also, at Markelo you can find the Friezenberg ‘Frisians hill’, a 40 meters-high hill, and the Dingspelersberg. The latter is composed of dincspel ‘thing-jurisdiction’ and berg ‘mound/hill’. An etymology comparable to Dinxperlo, a town a bit more to the south from Markelo. The word dingspel is composed of the words ding and spel, where spel means ‘district’ or ‘jurisdiction’. In the northern Netherlands, there is also the old word kerspel, which referred to the jurisdiction of a parish.

The finish it off, close to the Dingespelersberg lies the Markelerberg or Markelose Berg. In the Late Middle Ages, sovereign rulers of the region, namely the bishop of Utrecht, were still being honoured on this hill called the Marckeberghe then. Markelo, and the Marckeberghe, was a sacral place and part of the cult of the Holy Blood that existed here until the seventeenth century. A sacred stone that received Christ’s blood was part of the cult (Frijhoff website).

Note that there is not much support from historians that Markelo in the Netherlands, previously written as Marclo, is the same Marclo mentioned in the Vita Lebuini Antiqua. This is because Markelo in the Netherlands is too far removed from the River Weser (Van der Tuuk 2024). But with all thing traditions around Markelo, continuing until the seventeenth century, and that it lies within the cultural Saxon territory, can we not consider the possibility that the Vita was not fully accurate and Marclo is simply Markelo?

The Friezenberg near Markelo is not the only Friezenberg in the world. In Germany exists also a Friesenberg, in the Danish language Friserbjerg. It is a town district of Flensburg where a burial mound existed, including a Grenzstein, a stone marking the border between two districts. All elements, including a stone, taken into account, it might have been a thing site as well.

pan-Frisia thing

The question whether there was even an overarching thing for the whole of Frisia in the Early Middle Ages, thus covering even the three civitates West Frisia, Mid Frisia and East Frisia, remains unanswered.

A strong candidate for such a pan-Frisia thing might be Fositesland. Earlier, we already mentioned the god Foseti, meaning ‘the god that presides’. Fositesland ‘president’s land’ is mentioned in the Vita sancti Willibrordi Traiectensis episcopi ‘life of Saint Willibrord bishop of Utrecht’ written by the clergyman from Northumberland, Alcuin of York (circa 735-804). Alcuin described an encounter on Fositesland between Saint Willibrord, Apostle to the Frisians, and the heathen King Radbod of Frisia. An encounter that took place around the year 692. Fositesland was an island located in confinio Fresonum et Danorum ‘between Frisia and Denmark’, according to Alcuin. A bit later, in the year 718, Saint Wulfram visited the island of Heligoland, too. Through a miracle, Saint Wulfram prevented two boys from being sacrificed to pagan gods. Both the account of Willibrord and of Wulfram speak of a holy well located on the island. And, according to the early-eleventh-century chronicler Adam of Bremen, the island of Heligoland was a popular place for hermits. In other words, this remote island at the North Sea with its high cliffs of red rocks, was probably of great religious importance to the Frisians throughout the Early Middle Ages. Indeed, a holy land.

Although commonly Fositesland is identified with the North-Frisian island of Heligoland in the German Bight at the North Sea (Hansen 1856, Halbertsma 2000), this is not fully certain. An island possibly known by the Romans under the name Basileia and known for its amber (Looijenga, Popkema & Slofstra 2017). In fact, today it is two islands that used to be connected to each other, well into the eighteenth century.

Sometimes, the Wadden Sea islands of Ameland and Texel, are considered to be Fositesland (Dykstra 1966, Halbertsma 2000, Brouwers 2013). Frisian folktales tell that the island of Ameland was known as Fostaland or Fosland, after the goddess Fosta, in ancient pagan times. After Christianization, a monastery was founded on the island of Ameland with the name Foswerd. Later, the monastery was relocated to the village of Ferwerd on the mainland (Dykstra 1966). Also, the Oera Linda book, a late nineteenth-century document with a fictional history of Friesland, speaks of the burgh Fåstaburgt and the templum Foste on the island of Ameland. Lastly, on Ameland, near the village of Nes in the center of the island, a little pond carries the names Willibrord dobbe or Fosite bron.

Anyway, geographically speaking, Heligoland’s location is quite central within the Frisian cultural area in the Early Middle Ages. Other names for the island are Helgoland, Hellgeland, and, of course, deät Lun or deat Lünn ‘the land’ in Halunder language, i.e., the native Frisian speech.

That a pan-Frisia thing would take place there, is speculation since no reference to assemblies is made in historic texts. With the high, red cliffs and free-standing stack called Lange Anna ‘tall Anna’, and being an mound surrounded by water, it does meet the requirements of being an imaginative and sacred site, for sure. The name Heligoland meaning ‘hillige lân‘ or ‘heiligen Land‘ or ‘holy land’ has parallels with thing assembly sites in Scandinavia. Helgøya ‘holy island’ in the Lake Mjøsa in Norway is a former thing site, and there are a number of other thing sites named holy island as well (Sanmark 2017).

Gatherings of modest numbers of Frisians from the various Frisian lands, including those from the regions Land Wursten and Landwürden in Germany, take place on the island of Heligoland every three year, nowadays. At first, these folkloric gatherings were named Sternfahrt der Friesen ‘rally of Frisians’ but since 1998 the event is known as Friesendroapen ‘Frisians-moot’.

Note that in the Early Middle Ages the island of Heligoland was a much bigger island and that much of the island has been washed away by the sea in the meantime. The maps below illustrate that the island of Heligoland used to be much bigger. According to sagas in the region of Nordfriesland the island lost much land after a punishment of god for lewd behaviour. When Saint Ursula and her 11,000 virgins landed on the island in the fourth century, the pagan islanders violated the women’s honour. Not only much land was washed away, but the island was also turned into stone (Muuß 1933).

island of Heligoland, region Nordfriesland, by Inezia Tours

North Sea island of Heligoland in 1648, 1719 and today

It is only in the High Middle Ages we are certain that a thing for pan-Frisia exists. Established somewhere around the year 1200. This imaginative thing site was near the modern town of Aurich in the region of Ostfriesland and called Upstalsboom. Not too far from the island of Heligoland in a way. The Upstalsboom thing cannot be much older than 1200 because it is located in a peat land area which were only commercially exploited during the High Middle Ages. Too young therefore (Nijdam 2021).

The Upstalsboom thing gathered once a year on the Tuesday after Pentecost, with delegates from all the so-called Seven Sealands. The Seven Sealands were divided into four fardingdela. The thing of the fardingdela was called the liodthing. A regional assembly that gathered at fixed times. The extraordinary things were called the bothing, as we have mentioned earlier. Bothing derives from (ge)boden ding or (ge)beden ding meaning ‘commanded’ or ‘requested/asked for’ thing respectively. A people’s assembly for a particular purpose, thus did not take place at fixed times in the year. The fimelthing was the follow-up thing, to discuss the matters that the bothing had not resolved (Mees 2023). Lastly, the four fardingdela ‘quarters’ had twice a year a thing called the lantding. The Old Frisian term fardingdela resembles the Old Icelandic term fjórðungar for regional districts.

The above is, by the way, a different explanation of the name bodthing from the one offered earlier this blog post (Iversen 2013), where it is connected with the idol Bede or Beda found on the stone pillar of Frisian mercenaries in the Roman Army at Hadrian’s Wall defending Britannia against the Picts and the Scots.

The Upstalsboom assembly was primarily an effort to combine forces against the surrounding feudal powers that posed a growing threat. Frisia was in essence just a loose collection of small, lord-free, farmer republics and, therefore, had a hard time organizing their guerrilla, militia defence. Whilst their surroundings possessed a knighthood and professional mercenary armies. Read more about this history in our blog post The Treaty of Upstalsboom. Why solidarity is not the core of a collective and why the whole Upstalsboom treaty failed. To get an idea of the medieval Frisian guerrilla warfare, check our blog post Guerrilla in the Polder. The Battle of Vroonen in 1297.

2. Other Thingies

There are indications thing gatherings were also moments for religious festivals, regional market and circuses or games, although some scholars doubt whether markets were that prominent (Mehler 2015). On the other hand, close links can be observed between thing sites, pre-Christian cult sites, medieval churches, games, and markets. The Þingvellir on Iceland is the biggest market of the year. Furthermore, horse races and horse fights were popular everywhere during the thing in the Viking Age (Ødegaard 2018). In Norway a seasonal meeting called skeið survived well into the seventeenth century, and horse racing and fighting without saddles was still popular (Loftsgarden et al 2019). But also think of wrestling and ritually slaughtering of wild boar (Sanmark 2017).

In other words, thing gatherings were also important events for creating collective memories and for social cohesion. Therefore, be suspicious when it comes to so-called medieval seend or see churches ‘ecclesiastical courts’ within a parish because they are strong candidates for being a former thing site. Within Frisia, the boundaries of parishes show likeness with those of the pagi. Like the pagi, parishes are often situated in river basins as well (De Langen & Mol 2021). An old and important settlement of former West Frisia is Medemblik where also a seend church was located. One of the oldest settlements in the area, proven from the second half of the seventh century. Might there have been a former thing site?

early-fourteenth-century mural, church Den Andel, province Groningen. The warrior left holds a so-called ‘cletsie’ which was a leaping pole annex spear. A typical weapon of the peoples living along the Wadden Sea coast.

The fact that thing sites, churches, religious activities, trade, and games happened together might also offer a different perspective on the high-medieval church murals of fighters in the churches of the villages of Stedum, Westerwijtwerd, and Woldendorp, and the horse-fighters in the church of the village of Den Andel, all located in the province of Groningen, thus former Frisia. Traditionally, these fighters are associated with dual fighters. Fighters, known as kempa in the Old Frisian language, were hired by parties who were having a legal dispute to perform an ordeal. In Scandinavia these fights were called a holmgang. Hólmr means ‘island’ and ganga ‘to go/walk’ (Van der Tuuk 2025). In other words: going to the arena, to the dohyō or boxing ring.

But we humble hikers ask ourselves, are these murals really depicting kempa — which is very tempting since we learn of their existence in medieval legal texts, and we humans like straightforward one-plus-one reasonings — or are they perhaps impressions of games and circuses during the thing event near churches? Similar to the fighting and horse games that the southern Scandinavians had during the regional thing gatherings.

3. Things That Matter

Most of the Middle Ages, Frisia did not have any lord or central ruler. Nevertheless, the pagi and its thing were stable and kept functioning all the way through from the early to the late medieval periods. Even during times when Danish and Frankish rulers stirred things up temporarily, the thing kept doing its thing. These assemblies, to put it differently, proved to be the core of the (political) community (Nijdam 2021).

In West Frisia, the coastal area from the region of West Flanders to the province of Noord Holland, where counts and feudalism did gain control over the area in the course of the Middle Ages, it was for long practice that a new count would be present at the thing to receive the trust of the people, often after negotiations between the people and the new count about the mutual rights and duties. During the gathering at the thing, the new count swore to uphold and defend the rights and obligations of all his subjects. In return the subjects swore loyalty and pay taxes (Dijkstra 2011).

In the early fourteenth century, mention is made of the ceremonial journey of the Count of Holland through the province of Friesland to assert and establish his rule, too. It started at a spot called Suijtvinde near the town of Stavoren and continued from there to the places called Kempenesse and Aldenam, maybe the village of Arum, to the town of Franeker (Janse 1993). To this day, scholars have not been able to identify Suijtvinde, Kempenesse, and Aldenam. That the journey started at Stavoren and ended at Franeker seems evident. The latter town, spelled before as Fronakre, translates to ‘acre of vroon or frana‘, with vroon or frana meaning ‘lord’ (compare the village of Vroonen in the region of Westfriesland), and is, as we have seen, a possible thing site as well. In addition, it is located in the centre of Mid Frisia. Stavoren was an important town, both for trade and religion, since ancient times and the administrative centre of pagus Sudergo.

A similar practice, by the way, existed in Sweden; a ritual called Eriksgata. The word Eriksgata derives from einriker ‘absolute king’ and gata ‘journey, road’. The new king would travel through the country along important thing sites to receive his mandate (Sanmark 2017).

However, today parliaments broadly are being portrayed as stamping machines of the ruling parties, and their members as yes-men of those who hold power. In addition, the political art of consensus building of the thing is more and more being replaced by the vote and rule of the majority, regardless of the minority. Therefore, as promised at the start of this blog post, we would not only observe the past but also make some recommendations for the future. For this, it is finally the right time and place to briefly step into the political arena of the thing, if all the gods and our ancestors allow us.

Learning from an at least 2,000-years-old tradition of the thing, after those Frisian mercenaries in the Roman Army wrote about it, the following five advices are given to the Members of the present thing, and who are: Members of Parliament, Speakers of the House of Representatives, Presidents, (Prime) Ministers, (Under) Secretaries, and (High) Councils of State.

Frequency — Concerning the national thing, the civitas level, limit the number of meetings per year and, of course, only on Tuesdays. Less assembling helps the thing to focus on broad outlines and less on what is on the news the evening before. It also helps to limit unnecessary legislation which partially is born out of political profile desire. Appreciate the little things, too. Realize there are namely things at the regional and local level, too, capable of taking care of issues. That is, if you let them have the powers to do so (Knoop 2022). If the traditional three times per year for the national thing feels as if the stretch is too large, reduce the number of meetings drastically anyway.
Oath — Remind the members of the thing of the fact that they work and speak under oath and have, or at least ought to have, some personal honour. Be aware of the thriteen-centuries-old Frisian runic inscription ᛗᛞᚫ ᛒᚩᛞᚪ(edæ boda) carved in the wooden sword of Arum meaning ‘de geboden eed / the oath commanded’. In addition, reconsider whether violating oaths and perjury shouldn’t have more attention and greater consequences as well. We understand, many Members of the modern thing often can’t recall events in their memory due to their busy agendas, and because of for being in office so long. But it is still worth a try, we think.
Transparency — Essential for the medieval thing was that the meetings and debates occurred in open air. Of course, this is still practiced because people can watch the meetings on the web or on the public tribunes. However, much debate that should take place during the public thing occurs in back rooms instead, combined with a dominant party discipline. Current initiatives for a more open and transparent government are praiseworthy, but they should also be developed by the thing for the thing. Limit yourself! Just as backroom deals must be avoided, communicating (simultaneously during the assembly of the thing), or better formulated, yelling at and insulting each other over Twitter/X or any other social media platform must be banned, too (Bouma 2024). In addition, as we have seen in this blog post, the location of thing must be neutral. Using social media platforms during the gathering of thing violates the neutrality of the location and hence of the meeting.
Shelf life — The thing was an important institute to prevent that too much power would accumulate with few. This has derailed completely, even within democracies, as everyone knows today. Consider therefore to formulate rules concerning the maximum number of terms for the Members to participate in the thing (Elzinga 2021). Every product has a maximum shelf life, whether this is canned tuna, tomatoes, packaged chicken, or politicians, officials, and administrators. Make sure it is a serious reduction concerning the standing practice. A positive side effect is that Members do not have to dig too deep into their memory anymore, which helps to strengthen the effectiveness of the oath (see advice 2).
Internet participation — Study on a different interpretation of the concept ‘The Internet of Things’. It might open new ways in consensus building through gathering. It might help the thing! Think of initiatives like Citizen’s Assemblies, the Sortition Foundation and the guidebook of the UN Democracy Fund (Talmadge 2023). And, instead, Members of the thing should refrain from producing fact-free opinions on the social media, and solely utter them at the thing (see also under advice 3). In the province of Friesland they came up with the internet consultation Stim fan Fryslân ‘voice of Friesland’ and in the Netherlands, focussing on climate and environment, with Bureau Burgerberaad ‘bureau citizen deliberations’.

Note 1 — We suggest that the original pillar (or at the very least a replica thereof) dedicated to the thing erected by the band of Frisian mercenaries, possibly including tribesmen from the region of Twente, at Housesteads at Hadrian’s Wall in the third century AD, will be relocated to Het Binnenhof in the city of The Hague in the Netherlands. Het Binnenhof is the ground where parliaments and governments of the Netherlands have gathered for the last four to five centuries. And, in accordance with ancient traditions, the former gallows named ‘t Groene Zoodje ‘the green turf’ is located near the thing site Het Binnenhof at Plaats Sq. in the city of The Hague.

Imagine, the almost 2,000-year-old stone Frisian pillar of fort Housesteads, referring to the people’s assembly of the thing, standing at this spot. How much greater and more symbolic do you want it to be? Moreover, Het Binnenhof also happens to be the oldest house of parliament in the world still in use! It would be a testimony of the ancient roots of democracy in the northwest of Europe upon which the Netherlands stands. Including being one of the first people’s republics in history as well.

Why did we, humble hikers, have to come up with this idea anyway? The Netherlands as birthplace of the thing. A tradition of public consensus building through gathering, historical and archaeological traceable in the central river area from the Late Antiquity, and — uniquely — continuing to function throughout the whole Middle Ages in the former small republics of Frisia in the north of Germany and the Netherlands. How much better than all the statues of former grey statesmen placed on socles, too. And the appreciation of democracy can use a boost. In this we share the worries of the THING project.

If the national parliament in the city of The Hague for some reason does not feel like adopting this pillar and realising this initiative, at least the regional parliaments of the province of Friesland, viz. the Provinsjale Steaten, and of Overijssel, which encompasses the region of Twente, should.

Note 2 — The featured image of this blog post is from the movie The Fantastic Four (2005), with The Thing being the ‘rocky type’ superhero. In 1982 and 2011, movies were released called The Thing. In both movies horrible creatures that must be killed. Of course, this is exactly not what we propose to do. For this reason, out of the three we chose the superhero.

Note 3 — According to tradition, the former, early-medieval circular fortress near the village of Tinnum on the Wadden Sea island of Sylt in the region of Nordfriesland, is also a thing site or Dinghügel as locally referred to.

Look to the Thing Project here

“Virtue is the correct use of free will.”

Posted on 19 oktober 2025 by yahya7337

Beantwoorden

“Virtue is the correct use of free will.”

St augustine – “On Grace & Free Will”

A TREATISE ON GRACE AND FREE WILL
BY
AURELIUS AUGUSTIN, BISHOP OF HIPPO

In this treatise Augustin teaches us to beware of maintaining grace by denying free will, or free will by denying grace; for that it is evident from the testimony of Scripture that there is in man a free choice of will; and there are also in the same Scriptures inspired proofs given of that very grace of God without which we can do nothing good. Afterwards, in opposition to the Pelagians, he proves that grace is not bestowed according to our merits. He explains how eternal life, which is rendered to good works, is really of grace. He then goes on to show that the grace which is given to us through our Lord Jesus Christ is neither the knowledge of the law, nor nature, nor simply remission of sins; but that it is grace that makes us fulfil the law, and causes nature to be liberated from the dominion of sin. He demolishes that vain subterfuge of the Pelagians, to the effect that “grace, although it is not bestowed according to the merits of good works, is yet given according to the merits of the antecedent good-will of the man who believes and prays.” He incidentally touches the question, why God commands what he means himself to give, and whether he imposes on us any commands which we are unable to perform. He clearly shows that the love which is indispensable for fulfilling the commandments is only within us from God himself. He points out that God works in men’s hearts to incline their wills however he wills, either to good works according to his mercy, or to evil works in return for their deserving—his judgment, indeed, being sometimes manifest, sometimes hidden, but always righteous. Lastly, he teaches us that a clear example of the gratuitousness of grace, not given in return for our
deserts,(That which is deserved or merited; a just punishment or reward) is supplied to us in the case of those infants which are saved, while others perish though their case is identical with that of the rest. Read here

St. Augustine on Human Temporality and Divine Eternity

The City of God and Confessions – St Augustine

AUGUSTINE AND AL-GHAZALI

Saint Augustine and Islam

—————-

What does love look like?
It has the hands to help others.
It has the feet to hasten to the poor and needy.
It has eyes to see misery and want.
It has the ears to hear the sighs and sorrows of men.
That is what love looks like.

Saint Augustine

In the 5 circles is written: “Gave van Barmhartigheid“: Gift of Mercy , “Gave van Genade’: Gift of Grace, “Gave des Levens” ( in the heart): Gift of Life, ” Gave van Medelijden”: Gift of Compassion, “Gave van sterkte“: Gift of strength.

– The Body is Like Mary

The Body is Like Mary

The body is like Mary, and each of us has a Jesus inside.
Who is not in labour, holy labour? Every creature is.

See the value of true art, when the earth or a soul is in
the mood to create beauty;

for the witness might then for a moment know, beyond
any doubt, God is really there within,

so innocently drawing life from us with Her umbilical
universe – infinite existence …

though also needing to be born. Yes, God also needs
to be born!

Birth from a hand’s loving touch. Birth from a song,
from a dance, breathing life into this world.

The body is like Mary, and each of us, each of us has
a Christ within.

– Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi

Between the Square and the Compass: The Myth of Fuxi and Nüwa

Posted on 12 oktober 2025 by yahya7337

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From: the metaphysical symbolism of the Chinese tortoise

There are two separate versions of the myth of Nüwa which describe the origin of chaos in the world. (In Chinese, the word for ‘whirlpool’ is wo (渦), which shares the same pronunciation with the word for ‘snail’ (蝸). These characters all have their right side constructed by the word wa (咼), which can be translated as ‘spiral’ or ‘helix’ as noun, and as ‘spin’ or ‘rotate’ when as verb, to describe the ‘helical movement’. This mythical meaning has also been symbolically pictured as compasses in the hand which can be found on many paintings and portraits associated with her.)

The first myth is from Lun Heng and describes how Mount Buzhou was tilted during the battle between Gong Gong and Zhuan Xu for the lordship. However, the battle damaged Mount Buzhou, one of the sky pillars, and the sky’s ties with the earth were severed. This caused the sky to incline to the northwest and, as a result, astral bodies move in a westerly direction, while the rivers of China flow towards the ocean (in the east). In the Huainanzi version, the world was engulfed in a catastrophic deluge and was saved by Nüwa who mended the sky with five magical stones. Both versions include Nüwa cutting of the legs of a tortoise to hold up the sky and repairing the sky with five magical stones. The following text is from the Huainanzi:

“The four pillars were broken; the nine provinces were in tatters. Heaven did not completely cover [the earth]; Earth did not hold up [heaven] all the way [its circumference]. Fire blazed out of control and could not be extinguished; water flooded in great expanses and would not recede… Nüwa smelted together five-colored stones¹ in order to patch up the azure sky, cut off the legs of the great tortoise to set them up as the four pillars…”

The myth follows a general explanatory pattern. The first example is the four pillars that hold up the sky and fall into a state of disrepair. These four pillars belong to a cosmological belief found across different cultures: that heaven is supported by pillars or on some kind of foundation. According this myth, the pillars are in the form of mountains. The second example is the existence of fire and water in this myth before anything else, which infers the intermingling of Yin and Yang before the introduction of order from the chaos and the separation of heaven and earth. Furthermore, the ‘five colored stones’ actually represent the five elements created by Nüwa to repair the sky (heaven) and replace the broken pillars with the legs of a tortoise. Although the myth contains no images that explicitly illustrate the tortoise supporting the earth like in other cultures, (he world tortoise in Hindu culture holds up four elephants and in turn they supported the world above; Next, the myth “Churning of the milky ocean” depicts Vishnu incarnated as a tortoise as the base supporting the pillar where the asura and devas were wrestling to churn the milk ocean.) we can assume that the tortoise, or at least part of it, does actually support the sky.

Images of Nüwa usually depict with a partner figure, Fuxi. In many rubbings and images, they are depicted with human upper bodies with serpentine tails If their tails are entwined, it symbolizes the interaction of Yin and Yang, depicting male and female aspects co-existing as complementary pairs rather than polarities. Similar intertwinement can be observed in images of the tortoise and the snake. Nüwa and Fuxi⁵ appear together holding a compass (gui) and a square respectively (ju). Together, they represent stability and order, and this was exactly what the pair introduced into the world when it was engulfed in turmoil and unrest. Fuxi was known as the sage that taught mankind how to hunt and cook, and, together with Nüwa, he established the four seasons. The introduction of order and harmony in the world was achieved by the use of two special tools, the compass and the square. Nüwa holds the compass while Fuxi holds the square; the tools are correlated with the circular heaven and the square (or rectilinear) figures of Earth and Heaven respectively . Guénon suggests that the opposition of the square and circle suggests a passage from the human state, represented by the earth and can be directly perceived by man, to the supra-human states, represented by heaven. In other words, the tools represent a passage from the domain of the ‘lesser mysteries’ to that of the ‘greater mysteries.’

The compass, being a ‘celestial’ symbol,represents the Yang and the masculine, and therefore should belong to Fuxi (Yang principle) as the symbol of Heaven is circular or spherical. The square, being a ‘terrestrial’ symbol, represents the Yin and the feminine, and therefore should belong to Nüwa (Yin principle).This does not seem to be the case, it is Fuxi who holds the square (Fuxi being male and correlate to yang principle, which is symbolized by Heaven and circle shape) and Nüwa who holds the compass (Nüwa being female and correlate to yin principle, which is symbolized by Earth and square shape). If we were to recall, within the symbol of the yinyang, there is a yin within the yang and the yang within the yin, this is symbolized by entwined serpentine tail. The images showing Nüwa holding the compass are a sign of the world’s stability as she repaired the heavens using it. While the compass is associated with the tangibility of manifestation, and the shape of the square represents the weight of stability. (The compass is used to draw the circle or the sphere. It is intrinsically the primordial form because it is the least ‘specified’ of all, similar to itself in every direction in such a way that in any rotatory movement about its center, all its successive positions are strictly superimposable one on another. Therefore the sphere is considered by Guénon to be the most universal form of all, containing in a certain sense all other forms which will eventually emerge from it by means of differentiations taking place in certain particular directions. Guénon, R. (2001). The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times: Sophia Perennis, p.137.)

The square, held by Fuxi, does indeed belong to him, being the ‘Lord of the Earth’, mentioned by Guénon, whom rules by the square.( The cube or square is opposed to the sphere as being the most ‘arrested’ form of all, and therefore related to the earth as the ‘terminating and final element’ of manifestation in the corporeal state. It is also called the ‘stopping point’ of the cyclical movement. Furthermore, it is in a sense above all that of the ‘solid’ and symbolizes stability as it gains equilibrium of a cube resting on one of its faces and is considered more stable than any other body. Ibid, 138.) He is no longer considered to be related to Nüwa as he is a manifestation of Yin-Yang after being reintegrated into the state of a ‘primordial man’. From this viewpoint, the symbol of the square takes on another meaning, and the two rectilinear arms demonstrate the two squares being joined to form a rectilinear form is interpreted by Guénon as a union of the horizontal and the vertical.¹³⁴ The Zhou Bi, a mathematical classic attributed to the Duke of Zhou, analyzes the problem of fitting the square within the circle and vice versa.¹³⁵

Each shape can fit within each other by using two methods. The first method involves ‘circling the square’, which makes a circle within a square, while ‘squaring the circle’ involves making a square within a circle.¹³⁶ It is further explained in the Zhou Gnomon that rotating a square can make a circle and that joining two try squares can make a square. ‘The square pertains to Earth, and the circle pertains to Heaven. Heaven is circle, and Earth is square.’ This observation, together with the intertwined tails of Nüwa and Fuxi, further suggests that Fuxi, the ‘Primordial Man’, has the potential to assimilate both heaven and earth (Yin and Yang), transcending the ordinary man. By extension, this harmonious unity applies to the earth and heaven as well as Yin and Yang. ( The ‘Primordial Man’ is considered to have passed from the circumference to the center (Buddhism expresses this term anägamī, that is, ‘he who returns not’) to another state of manifestation. In other words, the ‘Primordial Man’ is no longer affected by his conditioned existence despite being in that current state. On the other hand, in the eyes of ordinary men, he is considered as an ‘agent’ or representative of Heaven, which through his actions and influence, is the ‘center’ and the conduit of the ‘activity of Heaven’ itself. Just like the Emperor, without ever leaving the Ming Tang, he controls all the regions of the Empire and regulates the course of the annual cycle, for ‘To be concentrated in non-action, that is the Way of Heaven’.)

From the myth of Pangu and the tale of Nüwa and Fuxi, it can be inferred that the fire and water have a strong connection to the concept of Yin and Yang. In the various depictions of Fuxi and Nüwa, this view is indeed reinforced and in some images, we notice the presence of the tortoise at the bottom and a bird on the top . In all four images the tortoise is situated at the bottom; a plausible reason for this is its strong association with the earth and the Yin principle. Furthermore, anything above the tortoise shell is considered to be ‘Yang’ or heaven, because the shell symbolizes the round, domed shape of heaven. Hence, the tortoise ‘supports’ images that are above it in the realm of heaven.

The myth of Nüwa and Fuxi supports this idea as the legs of the tortoise were cut and used to support the azure sky. It is also widely known that the black tortoise represents the Northern direction; therefore, from the table of correlations , the tortoise belongs to the category of “north” and all things associated with it. Also, what is ‘below’ the tortoise is actually earth and water. From the image, we can infer that where the tortoise is situated represents the northern sector. Directly opposite north is the south and therefore, the bird-like figure is identified as the vermillion bird of the south.

	Visual Analysis
Bird	Tortoise	Nuwa & Fuxi
Above	Below	Left & Right
Flying	Crawling	Middle
Light	Heavy	Balanced
Yang	Yin	Female/Male Principle
Near Heaven	Near Earth	Middle
Active	Passive	Circle & Square
Fire	Water	Moon & Sun

The relationships between the five elements and various things in the world.

The tortoise therefore assumes the role of an indicator of a larger context; it contains the whole Chinese cosmological view of Yin (earth) and Yang (heaven) symbolized by its plastron and shell respectively, aspects which we will examine more closely in the following chapter. The tortoise is also part of the visual language of our reference, indicating its principles are firmly rooted in the north and its associated aspects. As a macrocosm, the bird and the tortoise both function as indicators of fire and water, heaven and earth, Yang and Yin, as both animals are respectively light and heavy. Together with images of Fuxi and Nüwa, they symbolize the male and female principles under heaven (bird) and atop earth (tortoise). From Zhou Dunyi’s diagram, we can observe the relationships between heaven/earth, fire/water, and male/female.

Relationship between Zhou Dunyi’s diagram and Chinese cosmology including the Nwa and Fuxi myth
along with other various principles.

In summary, we observe the tortoise’s legs replace the pillars supporting the Heaven, Nüwa using the five stones which parallels the five elements that was believed to be the fundamental building blocks that was believed to make up the world between Heaven and Earth. Fuxi and Nüwa instruments, the compass and the square are used to draw order from chaos through the symbol of square and circle that corresponds to Heaven and Earth. In a way, these repeated shapes could be found within the tortoise form – the round dome or circular depending on which view we look at it and the plastron of the tortoise, that corresponds to the four directions on the terrestrial as well as in the celestial sphere.

Stylisation of the 禄 lù or 子 zi grapheme, respectively meaning “prosperity”, “furthering”, “welfare” and “son”, “offspring”. 字 zì, meaning “word” and “symbol”, is a cognate of 子 zi and represents a “son” enshrined under a “roof”. The symbol is ultimately a representation of the north celestial pole (Běijí 北极) and its spinning constellations, and as such it is equivalent to the Eurasian symbol of the swastika, 卍 wàn.

(a stylised 禄 lù and/or 子 zi character, meaning respectively “prosperity”, “furthering”, “welfare” and “son”, “offspring”. 字 zì, meaning “word” and “symbol”, is a cognate of 子 zi and represents a “son” enshrined under a “roof”. Lùxīng (禄星 “Star of Prosperity”) is Mizar (ζ Ursae Majoris) of the Big Dipper or Chariot constellation (within Ursa Major) which rotates around the north celestial pole; it is the second star of the “handle” of the Dipper. Zi was the name of the royal lineage of the Shang dynasty, and is itself a representation of the north celestial pole and its spinning stars (Didier, p. 191 and passim). Likewise to the Eurasian swastika symbols, representations of the supreme God manifesting as the north celestial pole and its Chariot (Assasi, passim; Didier, passim), the lu or zi symbol represents the ordering manifestation of the supreme God of Heaven (Tiān 天) of the Chinese tradition. Luxing is conceived as a member of two clusters of gods, the Sānxīng (三星 “Three Stars”) and the Jiǔhuángshén (九皇神 “Nine God-Kings”). The latter are the seven stars of the Big Dipper plus two less visible ones thwartwise the “handle”, and they are conceived as the ninefold manifestation of the supreme God of Heaven, which in this tradition is called Jiǔhuángdàdì (九皇大帝, “Great Deity of the Nine Kings”) (Cheu, p. 19), Xuántiān Shàngdì (玄天上帝 “Highest Deity of the Dark Heaven”) (DeBernardi, pp. 57–59), or Dòufù (斗父 “Father of the Chariot”). The number nine is for this reason associated with the yang masculine power of the dragon, and celebrated in the Double Ninth Festival and Nine God-Kings Festival (DeBernardi, pp. 57–59). The Big Dipper is the expansion of the supreme principle, governing waxing and life (yang), while the Little Dipper is its reabsorption, governing waning and death (yin) (Cheu, p. 19; DeBernardi, pp. 57–59). The mother of the Jiuhuangshen is Dǒumǔ (斗母 “Mother of the Chariot”), the female aspect of the supreme (Cheu, p. 19; DeBernardi, pp. 57–59). Source#1: Didier, John C. (2009). “In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200”. Sino-Platonic Papers. Victor H. Mair (192). Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China Source #2: Assasi, Reza (2013). “Swastika: The Forgotten Constellation Representing the Chariot of Mithras”. Anthropological Notebooks (Supplement: Šprajc, Ivan; Pehani, Peter, eds. Ancient Cosmologies and Modern Prophets: Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture). Ljubljana: Slovene Anthropological Society. XIX (2). ISSN 1408-032X. Source#3: Cheu, Hock Tong (1988). The Nine Emperor Gods: A Study of Chi Source#4: DeBernardi, Jean (2007). “Commodifying Blessings: Celebrating the Double-Yang Festival in Penang, Malaysia and Wudang Mountain, China”. In Kitiarsa, Pattana. Religious Commodifications in Asia: Marketing Gods. Routledge. Source #5: Ma Pilar Burillo-Cuadrado (2014). “The Swastika As Representation Of The Sun Of Helios And Mithras”. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 29-36 Source #6: A reconstruction of Zhū Xī’s religious philosophy inspired by Leibniz :the natural theology of heaven (2014).

Hugh Nibley gave a lecture in 1975 on “Sacred Vestments” which was later transcribed and included in the collected works volume *Temple and Cosmos* (pgs. 91-132). The entire paper is fascinating, and highly recommended reading. One of the things he wrote about were certain Chinese artifacts which had been found depicting two mythological gods, Nüwa and Fuxi, and the tools they hold:
Most challenging are the veils from Taoist-Buddhist tombs at Astana, in Central Asia, originally Nestorian (Christian) country, discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in 1925… **We see the king and queen embracing at their wedding, the king holding the square on high, the queen a compass**. As it is explained, the instruments are taking the measurements of the universe, at the founding of a new world and a new age. Above the couple’s head is the sun surrounded by twelve disks, meaning the circle of the year or the navel of the universe. Among the stars depicted, Stein and his assistant identified the Big Dipper alone as clearly discernable. As noted above, the garment draped over the coffin and the veil hung on the wall had the same marks; they were placed on the garment as reminders of personal commitment, while on the veil they represent man’s place in the cosmos. (pg. 111-12)…In the underground tomb of Fan Yen-Shih, d. A.D. 689, two painted silk veils show the First Ancestors of the Chinese, their entwined serpect bodies rotating around the invisible vertical axis mundi. Fu Hsi holds the set-square and plumb bob … as he rules the four-cornered earth, while his sister-wife Nü-wa holds the compass pointing up, as she rules the circling heavens. The phrase kuci chü is used by modern Chinese to signify “the way things should be, the moral standard”; it literally means the compass and the square.

Mosaic pavement of a 6th century synagogue at Beth Alpha, Jezreel Valley, northern Israel. It was discovered in 1928. Signs of the zodiac surround the central chariot of the Sun (a Greek motif), while the corners depict the 4 “turning points” (“tekufot“) of the year, solstices and equinoxes, each named for the month in which it occurs–tequfah of Tishrei, (tequfah of Tevet), tequfah of Ni(san), tequfah of Tamuz.

The Millstone in Mythology: A Symbol of Cosmic Order, Justice, and Transformation

In the mythologies of diverse cultures, the millstone appears not merely as a tool of agrarian labor but as a symbol imbued with immense metaphysical weight. Whether functioning as a source of abundance, an agent of justice, or a mechanism of fate, the millstone represents the cyclical and transformative forces that underpin both the human and the cosmic condition. From Norse sagas to African oral traditions and biblical parables, this humble object becomes a metaphor for the profound **interplay between creation, destruction, and moral consequence.

*Grotti’s Mill: Cosmic Power and the Consequences of Exploitation

One of the most striking mythological representations of the millstone occurs in Norse mythology with the tale of Grotti’s Mill, found in the Grottasöngr. This enchanted mill is capable of grinding anything the owner desires—peace, gold, or destruction. When King Frodi acquires the mill and forces two giantesses, Fenja and Menja, to labor ceaselessly, their grinding shifts from prosperity to vengeance. Ultimately, they bring about Frodi’s ruin by unleashing chaos through the mill.

Here, the millstone symbolizes the fragile balance of cosmic order. When treated with respect, it generates peace and wealth; when abused, it yields destruction. The myth functions as a cautionary tale about hubris, greed, and the exploitation of natural or divine forces, reflecting an early understanding of what we might now call ecological or spiritual backlash.

The Sampo: Mythical Mill of Prosperity in the Kalevala

A parallel motif exists in Finnish mythology in the form of the Sampo, a magical artifact described in the *Kalevala*, Finland’s national epic. Often interpreted as a millstone or cosmic mill, the Sampo endlessly produces grain, salt, and gold. Forged by the smith Ilmarinen, it is later stolen and lost at sea, bringing misfortune to the land and its people.

The Sampo, like Grotti’s Mill, symbolizes the source of life and abundance, but also its fragility. Its disappearance suggests that prosperity is not a permanent condition—it must be protected, cultivated, and used wisely. The Sampo functions mythologically as a cosmic center, a generative force whose disruption signals the dissolution of harmony.

Biblical Imagery: Judgment and the Weight of Moral Responsibility

In Christian scripture, the millstone takes on a different, though equally profound, symbolism. In the Gospel of Matthew (18:6), Jesus states,*”If anyone causes one of these little ones…to stumble, it would be better for them to have a large millstone hung around their neck and to be drowned in the depths of the sea. Here, the millstone is a metaphor for divine justice—an inescapable consequence for those who harm the innocent.

The weight and permanence of a millstone suggest the inescapable burden of guilt and the absolute nature of moral law. Unlike the Norse and Finnish mills, which produce external conditions (peace, gold, war), the biblical millstone is internalized—a representation of conscience, consequence, and ultimate accountability.

The Millstone in African and Ancient Mesopotamian Cosmologies

In West African oral traditions, the act of grinding grain—often done by women—carries sacred meaning. The millstone becomes a symbol of female power, ancestral continuity and **transformation**. It is both a domestic object and a spiritual one, representing the conversion of raw nature into nourishing culture. Similar motifs appear in Mesopotamian religion, where goddesses like Nisaba, associated with grain and wisdom, were linked to the act of milling as a divine function.

These traditions emphasize the millstone as a transformative force—a symbol not only of sustenance but of cultural identity, spiritual labor, and the cyclical regeneration of life through the feminine.

Universal Themes: Turning Wheels and Eternal Cycles

Across all these myths, the millstone serves as more than an instrument—it is a rotating axis, evoking imagery of the wheel of time, the cycle of karma, or the eternal return. The turning motion of the mill mirrors the revolutions of the stars, the seasons, and the soul’s journey through time. Whether used to produce food, treasure, or doom, the millstone becomes an agent of cosmic repetition and renewal.

Conclusion: The Millstone as a Symbolic Nexus*

The recurrence of the millstone across global mythologies suggests its function as a symbolic nexus—a point where material labor, metaphysical power, and moral consequence converge. It represents the processes that **grind down, refine, and reveal**: grain into flour, effort into sustenance, action into destiny. Whether in the hands of gods, giants, or mortals, the millstone reflects a core philosophical truth: that all creation involves a turning, a grinding, a cost—and ultimately, a transformation.

Spinning Symbolism in Mythology:

The Fates (Greek Mythology)

Clotho, Lachesis, Atropos: The three Moirai (Fates) spin, measure, and cut the thread of life.

Clotho spins the thread (beginning of life). Lachesis measures its length (the life span). Atropos cuts it (death).

Symbolism: Spinning here represents the control over life’s journey — creation, destiny, and inevitable fate.

Spider Goddess Neith (Egyptian Mythology) Neith is a primordial deity associated with weaving the world into existence. Sometimes depicted as weaving reality itself. Symbolism: The act of spinning/weaving equates to cosmic creation — crafting order from chaos.

The Norns (Norse Mythology)

Similar to the Fates, they spin the threads of destiny by Yggdrasil, the World Tree. Represent Urd (Past), Verdandi (Present), Skuld (Future). Symbolism: Spinning reflects how past, present, and future are interwoven, shaping all existence.

Arachne (Greek Mythology)

A mortal woman skilled in weaving who challenges the goddess Athena. Transformed into a spider as punishment for her hubris. Symbolism: Spinning/weaving reflects skill, creation, artistry — but also pride, defiance, and transformation.

Spinning as Broader Symbolism:

Creation — Spinning fibers into thread mirrors crafting reality from raw chaos.

Time & Continuity — Threads represent the continuous flow of life and history.

Fate & Control — The spinner holds power over destinies.

Transformation — Spinning materials into new forms symbolizes metamorphosis.

The spinning wheel and the millstone each carry rich symbolism, both individually and when compared. Here’s a breakdown of what they symbolize and how their meanings contrast or complement one another:

Spinning Wheel – Symbolism

Creation: The act of spinning raw fibers into thread symbolizes creativity and birth

Feminine Energy: Traditionally associated with women’s domestic labor and maternal roles.

Fate and Destiny: In mythology (e.g., the Fates in Greek myth), spinning controls the thread of life.

Time and Continuity: The constant spinning motion mirrors the cycle of time and life’s continuity.

Peace and Patience: Especially in Gandhi’s use, the spinning wheel (charkha) represents nonviolence, self-reliance, and simplicity.

Millstone – Symbolism

Burden or Weight: “A millstone around one’s neck” suggests*a heavy responsibility or punishment. |

Labor and Industry | Symbol of grinding work, sustenance, and survival—essential yet relentless.|

Judgment: In the Bible and other traditions, the millstone can symbolize divine justice.|

Transformation: Represents the breaking down of the raw into the refined (grain into flour).

Foundation: As a fixed element in work, it symbolizes stability and reliability. |

Spinning Wheel vs. Millstone – Symbolic Contrast

Light vs. Heavy: Light, delicate motion | Heavy, grinding force |

Creative vs. Destructive :Constructs thread from chaos | Destroys grain to create nourishment |

Feminine Creation: Womb-like symbolism (thread = life) | Earthy, grounding labor (grain = body/sustenance)|

Destiny vs. Duty:Tied to fate, myth, and spiritual identity | Tied to survival, labor, and physical need |

Together as Symbolic Pair

The spinning wheel and the millstone, when viewed together, can represent two fundamental aspects of human life:

Spinning Wheel = the soul’s journey, creativity, destiny, ideals

Millstone = the body’s needs, labor, sustenance, consequences

They also contrast idealism and practicality, or the lightness of creation with the weight of responsibility.

Frisians and Their Connection to Frodi’s Mill

1. Shared Germanic Heritage

The Frisians are part of the wider Germanic cultural and linguistic group, closely related to: The Saxons,The Angles,The Jutes,The Norse (Scandinavians)

This shared heritage means:

Many myths and themes—such as magical objects, fate, and heroic cycles—echo across Frisian and Norse traditions.
Elements like grinding mills, sea-based legends, and the tension between prosperity and downfall appear in both.

2. The Frisian Sea and Salt Connection

A prominent sea-faring people, the Frisians share with the Norse a deep mythology tied to the ocean.
The “Why the Sea is Salty” folk motif, which evolved from the Frodi’s Mill myth in Norse culture, also appears in various Germanic and North Sea coastal traditions, including Frisian folktales.
Some Frisian legends explain natural phenomena like tides, storms, and saltwater through lost magical objects or ancient curses—conceptually similar to the Grotti mill at the bottom of the sea.

3. Frisian Freedom and Frodi’s Tyranny

In Frisian identity, the concept of Frisian Freedom (the belief in self-rule and resistance to tyranny) is central.
Frodi’s legend is a cautionary tale about greedy, oppressive rulers leading to inevitable downfall—this moral aligns with Frisian traditions that emphasize freedom, justice, and resistance to foreign or unjust rule.
Some medieval sources tie Frisians mythologically to heroic, semi-legendary figures like Friso, who stands for liberation and seafaring prowess—traits that mirror opposition to rulers like Frodi in myth.

4. Possible Migration Myths

Some medieval chronicles suggest legendary migrations from Troy or the East, connecting Frisians and Danes. Though these are more legendary than historical, they reflect shared myth-making patterns.
This link offers a mythological space where Frisian sailors, Norse kings, and magical objects like Grotti could coexist in oral storytelling.

Summary: Is Frodi’s Mill Part of Frisian Myth?

Directly? — No confirmed, native Frisian version of Frodi’s Mill survives in historical records.
Indirectly? — Yes, through shared mythology, coastal folklore, and cultural exchanges across the North Sea during the Viking Age.

Themes of: Sea legends (salt, sunken treasures)- Resistance to oppression (Frodi’s downfall vs. Frisian Freedom) – Shared Germanic cosmology : All create strong parallels.

Hamlet’s Mill:

Hamlet’s Mill: An Essay on Myth & theFrame of Time (first published by Gambit Inc.,
Boston, 1969), later Hamlet’s Mill: An Essay Investigating the Origins of Human
Knowledge and Its Transmission Through Myth, by Giorgio de Santillana, a professor of the
history of science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, MA, US, and Hertha von Dechend, a professor of the history of science at Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt, Germany, is a nonfiction work of history of science and comparative mythology, particularly in the subfield of archaeoastronomy. It is primarily about the possibility of a Neolithic era or earlier discovery of axial precession and the transmission of that knowledge in mythology.

The main theses of the book include (1) a late Neolithic or earlier discovery of the precession of the equinoxes,2 an associated long-lived megalith building late Neolithic civilization that made astronomical observations sufficient for that discovery in the Near East,[2] and (3) that the knowledge of this civilization about precession and the associated astrological ages was encoded in mythology, typically in the form of a story relating to a millstone and a young protagonist.

This last thesis gives the book its title, “Hamlet’s Mill”, by reference to the kenning Amlóða kvern recorded in the Old Icelandic Skáldskaparmál.

The authors claim that this mythology is primarily to be interpreted as in terms of archaeoastronomy and they reject, and in fact mock, alternative interpretations in terms of fertility or agriculture.

The book’s project is an examination of the “relics, fragments and allusions that have survived the steep attrition of the ages”. In particular, the book centers on the mytheme of a heavenly mill which rotates around the celestial pole and is associated with the maelstrom and the Milky Way.

The authors argue for the pervasiveness of their hypothetical civilization’s astronomical ideas by selecting and comparing elements of global mythology in light of hypothetical shared astronomical symbolism, especially among heavenly mill myths, heavenly milk-churn myths, celestial succession myths, and flood myths.

Their sources include African myths collected by Marcel Griaule, the Persian epic Shahnameh, the Classical mythology of Plato, Pindar, and Plutarch, the Finnish epic Kalevala, the eddas of Norse mythology,] the Hindu Mahabharata,[ Vedas,] and Upanishads,] Babylonian astrology, and the Sumerian Gilgamesh and King List. Read here

WHY THE SEA IS SALTY.
FROTHI, king of the Northland, owned some magic millstones. Other millstones grind corn, but these would grind out whatever the owner wished, if he knew how to move them. Frothi tried and tried, but they wouldm not stir.
“Oh, if I could only move the millstones,” he cried, “I would grind out so many good things for my people. They should all be happy and rich.”
One day King Frothi was told that two strange women were begging at the gate to see him.
“Let them come in,” he said, and the women were brought before him.
“We have come from a land that is far away,” they said. “What can I do for you?” asked the king. “We have come to do something for you,” answered the women. “There is only one thing that I wish for,” said the king, “and that is to make the magic millstones grind, but
you cannot do that.” “Why not?” asked the women. “That is just what we have come to do. That is why we stood at your gate and begged to speak to you.”
Then the king was a happy man indeed. “Bring in the millstones,” he called. “Quick, quick! Do not wait.” The millstones were brought in, and the women asked, “What shall we grind for you?” “Grind gold and happiness and rest for my people,” cried the king gladly.
The women touched the magic millstones, and how they did grind! “Gold and happiness and rest for the people,” said the women to one another. Those are good wishes.”
The gold was so bright and yellow that King Frothi could not bear to let it go out of his sight. “Grind more,” he said to the women. “Grind faster. Why did you come to my gate if you did not wish to grind?” “We are so weary,” said the women. Will you not let us rest?” “You may rest for as long a time as it needs to say ‘Frothi,’” cried the king, “and no longer. Now you have rested. Grind away. No one should be weary who is grinding out yellow gold.” “He is a wicked king,” said the women. “We will grind for him no more. Mill, grind out hundreds and hundreds of strong warriors to fight Frothi and punish him for his cruel words.” The millstones ground faster and faster. Hundreds of warriors sprang out, and they killed Frothi and all his men.
“Now I shall be king,” cried the strongest of the warriors. He put the two women and the magic millstones on a ship to go to a far-away land. “Grind, grind,” he called to the women.
“But we are so weary. Please let us rest,” they begged.
“Rest? No. Grind on, grind on. Grind salt, if you can grind nothing else.”
Night came and the weary women were still grinding. “Will you not let us rest?” they asked.
“No,” cried the cruel warrior. Keep grinding, even if the ship goes to the bottom of the sea.” The women ground, and it was not long before the ship really did go to the bottom, and carried the cruel warrior with it. There at the bottom of the sea are the two millstones still grinding salt, for there is no one to say that they must grind no longer. That is why the sea is salty.

Salt in the ocean comes from two sources: runoff from the land and openings in the seafloor.
Rocks on land are the major source of salts dissolved in seawater. Rainwater that falls on land is slightly acidic, so it erodes rocks. This releases ions that are carried away to streams and rivers that eventually feed into the ocean. Many of the dissolved ions are used by organisms in the ocean and are removed from the water. Others are not removed, so their concentrations increase over time.
Another source of salts in the ocean is hydrothermal fluids, which come from vents in the seafloor. Ocean water seeps into cracks in the seafloor and is heated by magma from the Earthʼs core. The heat causes a series of chemical reactions. The water tends to lose oxygen, magnesium, and sulfates, and pick up metals such as iron, zinc, and copper from surrounding rocks. The heated water is released through vents in the seafloor, carrying the metals with it. Some ocean salts come from underwater volcanic eruptions, which directly release minerals into the ocean.
Salt domes also contribute to the ocean’s saltiness. These domes, vast deposits of salt that form over geological timescales, are found underground and undersea around the world. They are common across the continental shelf of the northwestern Gulf of America.
Two of the most prevalent ions in seawater are chloride and sodium. Together, they make up around 85 percent of all dissolved ions in the ocean. Magnesium and sulfate make up another 10 percent of the total. Other ions are found in very small concentrations. The concentration of salt in seawater (salinity) varies with temperature, evaporation, and precipitation. Salinity is generally low at the equator and at the poles, and high at
mid-latitudes. The average salinity is about 35 parts per thousand. Stated in another way, about 3.5 percent of the weight of seawater comes from the dissolved salts.

Earth system models about ocean circulation

This model shows some of the cause and effect relationships among components of the
Earth system related to ocean circulation. While this model does not depict the ocean
circulation patterns that results from atmospheric wind and density differences in water
masses, it summarizes the key concepts involved in explaining this process

Note: The Dupljaja Chariots: Bronze Age Vehicles of the Gods

By Cogniarchae

Discovery and Context

In northern Serbia, two ceramic chariot models from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600–1200 BC) were unearthed in the village of Dupljaja, made in the Dubovac–Žuto Brdo / Garla Mare pottery tradition.

Their rotating wheels and worn surfaces prove active use — ritual or otherwise — and their design shows symbolic intent.

Each chariot bears a human figure — stylized and bird-faced (or with a bird mask). At least one figurine is likely male, with male genitalia under the skirt. Both are adorned with solar symbols such as the swastikas, circles and spirals.

The rich symbolism behind these artefacts has never been fully unraveled. It’s time we changed that.

The Umbrella Canopy — A Royal and Divine Symbol

The canopy marks the rider as sovereign or divine.

This arched canopy on a chariot is non-existent in European Bronze Age art but common in Vedic, Mesopotamian, and Assyrian iconography, where umbrellas signify royalty and divinity.

Vedic texts describe Aśvin-s, Indra, and Arjuna in covered chariots, symbols of prestige and divine authority.

The Dupljaja chariot is among the oldest known depictions of this kind of chariot anywhere in the world.

This Aryan tradition still lives in India, Cambodia, and Thailand through royal processions.

The Way of the Chariots

How chariots conquered the world.

Most historians and archaeologists attribute the introduction of chariots to the Indian subcontinent to Indo-Aryan–speaking groups who arrived during the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BC.

Here’s the outline of what is known (and debated):

1. Archaeological record

• The earliest direct chariot finds in South Asia come from Sinauli (Uttar Pradesh), dated roughly to 2000–1800 BC. These were burials with solid-disk wheels and a pole for yoking animals. Whether they were true spoked-wheel war chariots or more like carts is still debated.

• True spoked-wheel chariots—lighter, faster vehicles associated with horse warfare—appear in the Near East and Central Asia around 2000 BC, linked to the Sintashta–Petrovka culture in the Eurasian steppe.

2. Linguistic evidence

• Vedic Sanskrit has an Indo-European chariot vocabulary (ratha, chakra, ashva, etc.) that closely matches cognates in other ancient Indo-European languages, suggesting a shared steppe origin.

• This points to chariots entering India alongside Indo-Aryan migrants from the north-west, via Central Asia and the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) region.

3. Historical interpretation

• Most scholars see the Indo-Aryan migration (~2000–1500 BC) as the vector for introducing true horse-drawn, spoked-wheel chariots into India.

• Some Indian archaeologists propose that chariots were locally developed or introduced earlier via trade from the Near East, citing the Sinauli finds. This is controversial because those vehicles may have been ox-drawn and solid-wheeled, not the lightweight steppe war chariot.

4. Likely route

Eurasian steppe (Sintashta/Andronovo) → Central Asia/BMAC → north-west India (Punjab/Haryana) → spread into the Vedic cultural sphere.

However, some of the oldest known, Neolithic representations of wheeled vehicles come from Anatolia and the Balkans.

Four-Spoked wheels

One of the earliest form of wheels

With their four-spoked wheels, the Dupljaja chariots occupy a distinct branch on the evolutionary tree of wheel design:

1. Pre-spoke era (before ~2200 BC)

Solid wheels dominate — heavy, disk-shaped, made from planks.
Common in Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, and early Anatolia.
Used for ox-drawn carts, not fast warfare.

2. Early spoked wheels (2200–2000 BC)

First experiments with many spokes (6, 8, sometimes more) appear in the Near East and Caucasus.
Evidence:
Middle Elamite cylinder seals (Iran) — show carts with spoked wheels.
Maikop & Trialeti cultures — solid and possibly proto-spoked examples.
Likely too heavy for true chariot speed.

3. Four-spoke revolution (c. 2000–1900 BC)

Earliest secure archaeological finds:
Sintashta (Russia) – Kurgans 1, 5, and others show two-wheeled chariots with exactly four wooden spokes per wheel.
Krivoye Ozero and Arkaim – similar construction.
Wheels about 80–90 cm in diameter, hubs with axle sleeves, lightweight frames.
Function: Fast, maneuverable, horse-drawn vehicles for warfare and prestige.
Importance: This design dramatically reduced weight and allowed higher speeds.

4. Spread & diversification (1900–1500 BC)

West: Reaches Hittites & Near East (c. 1800 BC) — they often switch to six-spoke wheels for added strength on rough terrain.
South: Passes through BMAC and Indo-Iranian migration routes.
East: By ~1700–1500 BC, Indo-Aryan groups bring light four-spoke chariotsinto the Punjab and upper Ganges region (Rigvedic ratha).

5. Decline of the four-spoke standard

In most regions (including India), six- and eight-spoke wheels become common by the Late Bronze Age.
Reasons: Stronger under stress, especially for heavier loads or rough ground.
Four-spoke wheels remain in ceremonial or specialized uses.

The Third Wheel Mystery

The third wheel is deliberate — and may even hold sacred meaning.

One of the Dupljaja chariots has three wheels. That’s unusual. Real chariots had two, for speed and maneuverability. This model adds a third at the front, between the draught poles.

This third wheel is not decorative: it rotates and shows wear, but unlike the others, it’s mismatched in material and design — likely reused or added later. It has been suggested that the third wheel was added to prevent the model from tipping over.

However, three-wheeled chariots — though rare — do appear in some of the earliest chariot-related myths. In the Ṛgveda, the gods known as the Aśvin-s — divine twins associated with dawn and healing — are said to ride in a flying three-wheeled chariot (tricakra).

This chariot is described as “brilliant, rolling lightly on its three wheels,” and “at whose yoking the Dawn was born.” It can move “without horses, without reins,” and is sometimes drawn by birds or compared to a bird in flight. One verse calls it “three-benched, three-wheeled, as quick as thought,” adorned with three metals.

In Sūryā’s Bridal (RV 10.85), the chariot appears at the marriage of the Sun’s daughter, Sūryā — a union rich in themes of renewal and fertility. Here, the third wheel becomes a mystery: the Brahmans know only two, while the third is hidden, known only to those “skilled in highest truths.”

This imagery fits into a much broader Indo-European dawn myth cycle: Uṣas, the Vedic dawn goddess, rides a chariot drawn by red cows or horses, heralding renewal; Eos in Greek myth (and her Roman counterpart Aurora) drives a chariot across the sky, often linked to Venus as the Morning Star.

It also fits the widespread sacred marriage motif, where the union of divine figures brings fertility and cosmic order — from Sūryā’s wedding to the tales of Inanna and Dumuzi, Zeus and Hera, Hathor and Horus, and even in the Ramayana, where Rāvaṇa abducts Sītā in a flying chariot.

So, who is the chariot?

The Pose of Power — Elbows Akimbo / Elibelinde

A Mother Goddess stance — with deep Balkan roots.

The motif predates the Bronze Age, with examples found at Göbekli Tepe and in numerous megalithic cultures worldwide. Its widespread use was likely due to practicality — it is simply the easiest way to carve hands in stone.

The central figure stands hands-on-hips — elbows bent, hands resting on hips — radiating authority and embodied power.

In Neolithic pottery, this pose began to take on a new meaning and most commonly represented the Mother Goddess. Geographically, Dupljaja village lies at the very heart of the Neolithic Vinča culture. Within the Vinča culture (c. 5700–4500 BC), countless figurines — often depicting goddesses or priestesses — share this stance, some even bearing bird-like faces.

Furthermore, this motif is found in traditional Oriental carpet design, in the symbol known as “elibelinde” — literally “hands on hips” — representing womanhood, marriage, and creation.

The skirts depicted on these designes are very remeniscent of the one that Dupljaja figurines are wearing.

The Many Faces of the Bird-Headed Deity

Avian faces here are not artistic quirks — they carry divine and messenger roles.

Identifying the rider of the Dupljaja chariot is no simple task. Bird-faced deities once flourished across a vast cultural corridor — from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, through Cyprus and the Balkans, and as far east as the Indus Valley. Yet their attributes shift with time and place. Sometimes they appear as male, sometimes as female, and sometimes as beings whose gender is deliberately ambiguous.

They may embody the sun or the dawn, act as messengers between worlds, or serve as protectors of kings. In some traditions they preside over fertility and renewal; in others, they guide souls to the afterlife.

Bird-Headed Males

Take, for example, the Egyptian Horus — a falcon-headed god and one of the most ancient bird-men known to us — here shown in the same commanding pose as the Dupljaja figure.

His roles were many: sky-god, divine protector of the pharaoh, avenger of his father Osiris, and guarantor of order over chaos. Horus was also a god of war and hunting, whose keen falcon eyes saw all from above, yet he could be a patron of kingship and renewal, embodying the daily rebirth of the sun.

However, Horus was never depicted riding in a chariot in Egyptian art. On the other side of the world, though, the equally ancient Garuda was.

The famous stone chariot at the Hampi temple is dedicated to him, echoing the grand processions in which his image would have been paraded. Garuda’s role was that of a divine mount and loyal servant to Vishnu, a cosmic protector who could traverse heaven and earth with the speed of the wind. He was the slayer of serpents, the enemy of demons, and the unyielding guardian of dharma.

In Serbian medieval epic poetry, the grey falcon (sivi soko) is a divine messenger and guide between worlds. The same role was attributed to falcons in numerous steppe cultures of Eurasia.

At the same time, the female counterpart of the grey falcon is the titmouse bird (ptica sjenica), equally popular in Serbian epics. I believe this word is a direct cognate of the Sanskrit śyena (“falcon”), which was also one of the names of Garuda. Sjenica would therefore mean “female falcon.”

Bird-Headed Females

There will always be those who claim that all examples of bird-headed deities arose independently, making any search for a common theme pointless.

However, nothing could be further from the truth. As the following image shows, even male and female deities were sometimes depicted with identical iconography — clear evidence that shared motifs did exist.

Astarte was a major goddess of the ancient Levant, especially among the Phoenicians, Canaanites, and later adopted by Egyptians. She sometimes combines avian facial features with the hands-on-hips pose and a chariot.

The above depiction of Astarte is very similar to the Solar Boat depictions from the Scandinavian Bronze Age.

Similarly, in Norse mythology, Freya rides a flying chariot drawn by two great cats. Freya, Inanna, and Astarte are all love-and-war goddesses linked to fertility and the planet Venus, embodying a shared archetype of beauty, power, and cosmic renewal, often depicted with ritual vehicles.

Note: See Mythology, Legends and Fairy Tales of Friesland

Frisian Craftmanship

———————-

In Slavic tradition, the goddess Vesna embodies youth, renewal, and spring’s triumph over winter’s death-spirit Morana. Particularly among South Slavs and East Slavs, Vesna is celebrated on March 22: villagers fashion clay or dough lark or swallow effigies, which are carried in song through the fields to summon her arrival and fertility.

In Slovenian lore, “vesnas” dwell atop mountains and descend in wooden carts in February, heard only by those attuned to their fate—an image highly resonant with the chariot‑travel motif found in Dupljaja and in Vedic dawn gods.

Hieros Gamos – Spring and Fertility

The Sacred Marriage of Heaven and Earth

Hieros gamos is an ancient ritual or mythic motif of a sacred marriage between a god and a goddess, symbolizing cosmic union, fertility, and the renewal of life.

In Serbia, March 22 holds a special significance. In Serbian Orthodox Christianity, it is celebrated as Mladenci (“the newlyweds”), falling just after the spring equinox. Beneath its Christian veneer, the day preserves a far older tradition — the hieros gamos.

While its official Orthodox meaning commemorates the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, the older, pre-Christian layer celebrates the union of a newly married couple as a cosmic and agricultural renewal. Timed to the moment when day and night stand in balance and the light begins to grow, it echoes ancient Near Eastern and Indo-European traditions — from Inanna and Dumuzi to Zeus and Hera, or Sūryā and her divine suitors — where such unions ensured fertility and prosperity.

The gifts of honey, bread, and wine offered to the newlyweds recall offerings once meant to bless the land, the household, and the community at the threshold of spring.

The Celestial Twins and the Chariot

The key is in the stars

The Vedic Aśvin-s are not only mythic twins — they are also astronomical figures. The ancients probably identified them with the Gemini constellation, the divine twins. Their chariot, blazing and radiant, maps closely to Auriga, the charioteer constellation just above them in the sky.

Here’s a thought: the shape of the Dupljaja chariot bears an uncanny resemblance to the Auriga constellation. Could this celestial likeness be the very reason the ancients added a mysterious third wheel to the ritual model?

However, all of these mythological layers only align if the spring equinox occurs somewhere between the constellations of Gemini and Taurus.

This celestial pairing — Gemini (the twins) and Auriga (the chariot) — was especially significant during the spring equinox window of the 6th to 4th millennia BC, when these stars heralded the new year and marked the rebirth of the solar cycle in the ancient sky.

Therefore, this imagery wasn’t just symbolic — it was calendrical. The Aśvin-s, as dawn-riders, may have once functioned as timekeepers, their rising announcing the return of the spring, and the turning of the year.

The same symbolism is clearly present on the Dupljaja chariots.

Moreover, looking at the opposite horizon from Gemini, the ancients would see three birds — Cygnus the Swan, Aquila the Eagle, and Lyra the Vulture.

Final Thoughts

Dupljaja chariot is a microcosm of ancient cosmology.

We may never know the myths that created the Dupljaja chariots, but their Mother Goddess stance, avian features, canopy, tricakra design, and echoes of ritual processions are all familiar.

These motifs existed in a continuum stretching from Neolithic Balkan worship to Vedic dawn hymns, Near Eastern sacred marriages, and Slavic seasonal rites.

My five cents is that what we see here is a Bronze Age echo of a much older Neolithic stellar myth and New Year rites, dating to a time when the spring equinox passed between Gemini and Taurus.

In ancient imagery, chariots usually carried moving objects — stars or planets. However, I don’t believe this was a solar symbol. More likely, these chariots carried the planets – originally Mercury, the ruler of the Gemini, and later Venus, who rules the Taurus. Indeed, Mercury, like the falcon, it is the swiftest of all planets, and its androgynous nature could explain the initial duality of the bird-faced deities.

These chariots were found on a cremation ground, but they were burried there after long and deliberate use. Therefore, I don’t believe that their role was to carry the sould to the afterlife, as some have suggested.

They are not relics of death, but a crafted symbol of hope, and the unbroken wheel of life that renews itself.

Look also: The Horse Sacrifice: a Self-Sacrifice for our Time

and The Androgyne: A Metaphysical, Linguistic and Anthropological View

and The double meaning of the Androgyne

An Introduction to Viking Art

Posted on 7 oktober 2025 by yahya7337

Beantwoorden

Gelmir is your go-to platform for knowledge and resources about the Viking Age and Early Medieval Scandinavia. We are committed to providing credible, well-researched content and dedicated support for the Viking community. Our mission is clear: to offer an anti-racist, academically grounded perspective on the Viking Age, free from the distortions of white supremacist narratives.

Founded by Connor Benson and Jonas Lau Markussen, Gelmir is a collaborative effort that bridges the gap between academic research and the broader public, making knowledge more accessible and engaging.

We saw a major gap in accessible, trustworthy information about the Viking Age. Many existing platforms are influenced by harmful ideologies, while museums and academic institutions often focus on national narratives that don’t always connect the dots across Scandinavia and Northern Europe.

We aim to:

Highlight academic research and museum collections that are often difficult to access due to geographical barriers or institutional limitations.
Provide English-language content to make this knowledge available to a global audience.
Explore the relevance of Viking Age culture today, particularly its animist perspectives and communal customs, which can offer valuable insights in our modern world.
Help people understand their cultural heritage and why it still matters.

Who is Gelmir For?

Gelmir is for everyone—whether you’re new to the world of Vikings or a dedicated expert. Our audience includes:

Curious newcomers looking for an accessible introduction to Viking history.
Hobbyists and reenactors passionate about bringing the past to life.
Academics and researchers eager to share and engage beyond traditional institutions.

We want Gelmir to be a living, evolving space where people can interact, learn, and contribute. We feature spotlight articles on tattoo artists, reenactors, and artisans recreating Viking Age artifacts, as well as in-depth work from historians and archaeologists.

This free guide gives you a clear overview of the Viking Age art styles, from early ornamental forms to the later, more intricate designs. Download here

Verder info: https://gelmir.com/

The Frisian Thread of Wisdom

Posted on 7 oktober 2025 by yahya7337

Beantwoorden

Celtic knotwork design

Perhaps the most familiar continuous-line drawings are the knotwork designs of Celtic art that were used to decorate metalwork, stone monuments, and manuscripts like the famous Book of Kells. George Bain, who unraveled the methods used in constructing these complex designs, found their astonishing complexity to be based on a few simple geometrical principles.

Bain’s research highlighted the connections between Celtic art and its religious, legal, and philosophical contexts. He noted that the use of knots and interlace motifs was often influenced by religious prohibitions on figurative representation, which led to ingenious decorative strategies in manuscripts and sculpture. His work also traced design influences between ancient Mediterranean, Asian, and North-European cultures, helping to clarify the origins and meaning of Celtic visual motifs.

Celtic knotwork often symbolizes eternity, the interconnectedness of life, or unbroken spiritual paths, as the lines have no beginning or end.
Spirals can represent cosmic forces, spiritual development, or cycles of birth and rebirth, especially in Insular and Pictish traditions.
Zoomorphic elements—where knots morph into animal forms—may evoke mythic creatures, protective spirits, or ancestral lineage, blending art with storytelling.

Referring to a page of the “Book of Armagh,” Professor J. O. Westwood wrote, “In a space of about a quarter of an inch superficial, I counted with a magnifying glass no less than one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a slender ribbon pattern formed of white lines edged with black ones upon a black ground. No wonder that tradition should allege that these unerring lines should have been traced by angels.” One of the aims of this book is to show that there is nothing marvellous in a design having not a single irregular interlacement. Indeed, a wrong interlacement would be an impossibility to a designer conversant with the methods. One might as well marvel at a piece of knitting that had not a mistake in its looping.

Threshold tracing, Isle of Lewis, Scotland

The continuous line also survived in Scotland, where M. M. Banks documented it in 1935. In some rural areas, housewives traced such patterns in pipe clay on thresholds, the floors of houses, and in dairies and byres. The designs, not all of which were continuous-line drawings, were refreshed each morning and were thought to keep away ghosts or evil spirits. One elderly woman in Galloway said that her grandmother had explained the tradition with a couplet:

Tangled threid and rowan seed

Gar the witches lose (or lowse) their speed

The example in Figure 18 is missing the guiding dots but a Greek vase from the 8th century B.C. with a similar design is not . The extra dots indicate the artist was imitating a design that was no longer understood. The Greeks viewed barbarian art much in the manner of modern decorators and borrowed and adapted freely.

Proto-Corinthian Greek vase, 8th century B.C.

A related motif dating from at least Bronze Age times is the spiral ornament, found in Greece, Rome, Etruria and among Germanic and Celtic peoples. Spiral fibula were used to close garments while a variety of metalwork designs served as arm bands, diadems and the like . Drawn from a single piece of wire, the spiral forms a continuous path ending where it begins, a trait common to the other art forms we have been discussing.

Bronze spiral arm band, 1600 B.C., Migration Period, Europe

The art historian Ananda Coomaraswamy comments on the symbolism of the spiral fibula.

The primary sense of “broach” (= brooch) is that of anything acute, such as a pin, awl or spear, that penetrates a material; the same implement, bent upon itself, fastens or sews things together, as if it were in fact a thread. French fibule, as a surgical term, is in fact suture. It is only when we substitute a soft thread for the stiff wire that a way must be made for it by a needle; and then the thread remaining in the material is the trace, evidence and “clew” to the passage of the needle; just as our own short life is the trace of the unbroken Life whence it originates.

Drawn from a single piece of wire, the spiral fibula forms a continuous path ending where it begins.

The use of a single line to construct a work of art has a long history as we have seen and examples can be found in a wide variety of media.

It is of little importance, in the different forms that the symbolism takes, whether it be a thread in the literal sense, a cord, a chain, or a drawn line such as those already mentioned, or a path made by architectural means as in the case of the labyrinth, a path along which the being has to go from one end to the other in order to reach his goal. What is essential in every case is that the line should be unbroken.

Symbolism shapes religious rituals, social identity, and even national icons, allowing communities to share complex ideas through shared visual language.
The study of symbolism reveals how societies articulate meaning, bridge material and spiritual worlds, and encode important knowledge through art and tradition.
George Bain, known as the father of the Celtic art revival, reached out and maintained contact with Ananda Coomaraswamy in the 1940s. Coomaraswamy, an esteemed art historian and philosopher specializing in Indian and Oriental art, was one of the most respected scholarly figures of that time and had a strong interest in Celtic culture throughout his career.
Coomaraswamy admired Bain’s work, and Bain expressed mourning for Coomaraswamy’s passing in the preface to his major book “Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction,” showing a connection that underlined a Celtic-Indian cultural linkage. Their intellectual exchange is regarded as part of a broader cross-cultural dialogue that linked Eastern art traditions and philosophies with Western Celtic revival movement. Core Philosophical Themes in Celtic Tradition
Interconnectedness and Eternity: Celtic art, especially knotwork, symbolizes the endless, interconnected nature of existence. The continuous loops without beginning or end reflect eternal life, unity, and the infinite cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
Cycles of Life and Renewal: Many motifs, such as spirals and the triskele (triple spiral), evoke life cycles, cosmic rhythms, and transformation. These represent the soul’s journey through phases of growth, death, and spiritual renewal, aligning human life with natural and cosmic forces.
Nature and Spiritual Vitality: Celts believed all elements of nature—rivers, rocks, animals, the sun, and the moon—possess spirit and power. This animistic belief is expressed in symbols that honor natural forces and the sacred balance between earth and the cosmos.
Balance and Harmony: The Awen symbol, consisting of three rays, represents spiritual inspiration as well as the balance between opposites such as male/female energies, mind/body, and opposing cosmic forces.
Trinity and Triplicity: Triangular and threefold symbols such as the triquetra emphasize important trinities in Celtic belief: life-death-rebirth, body-mind-spirit, or past-present-future. These forms unify spiritual, natural, and philosophical concepts in a single visual.
Philosophical Role of Celtic Symbols
Symbols were used as tools in rituals, healing, and oral traditions to convey wisdom and cosmic truths.
They acted as spiritual maps for meditation and guides for eternal truths embedded in everyday life.
Their meanings often combine Christian symbolism with pre-Christian pagan beliefs, showing cultural continuity and transformation.
In essence, Celtic traditions and philosophies express a profound spirituality centered on eternal cycles, unity with nature, and the balance of cosmic and human forces, richly encoded in their symbolic art and motifs
these motifs and symbolism is still to be seen in Frisian Crafmanship:

For the Frisian Eternal Knot see The wisdom of Frisian Craftmanship

Ananda Coomaraswamy viewed the motif of two birds, especially twin or entwined birds, as deeply symbolic rather than merely decorative. He connected this symbolism across cultures, noting similarities between Celtic traditions and Indian texts like the Upanishads.

In these traditions, two birds often represent dualities or pairs of opposites—such as soul and body, divine and human, or inner and outer realities—reflecting a metaphysical unity through their relationship. Coomaraswamy saw twin birds as carriers of spiritual meaning, like “psychopomps” (soul guides) or symbols of the soul’s journey and transcendence.

This symbol appears in Celtic art as interlaced bird motifs serving not just as ornament but as a representation of life’s dual nature and spiritual truths, paralleling similar uses

in ancient Indian cosmology and philosophy. Coomaraswamy’s comparative approach highlighted how such motifs are expressions of common archetypes across cultures, embodying spiritual and philosophical ideas through natural imagery.

Ananda Coomaraswamy interpreted the motif of twin birds in myth as a profound symbol of spiritual unity and duality. In a letter to George Bain in 1947, he explained that the two birds often found in traditional design represent the friendship or unity between the “inner and outer man,” meaning the spirit and body within every person. This is also reflected in the Indian Upanishads, where two birds perched on the same tree symbolize the universal self and the individual self—the true self and the ego.

Coomaraswamy elaborated that this symbolism captures the resolution of internal conflict and self-integration, the core goal of true psychology and spiritual development. He quoted the Upanishadic passage: “Two birds, fast bound companions, clasp close the selfsame tree, the tree of life,” indicating the inseparable, complementary nature of these dual aspects.

Thus, the twin birds in Celtic art, far from mere decoration, encapsulate themes of unity, friendship, and the relationship between body and spirit—an archetype that crosses cultural boundaries between Celtic and Indian traditions alike.

The blue tit symbolizes joy, cheerfulness, hope, and positive transformation, along with deeper meanings of love, loyalty, adaptability, and spiritual renewal in various folkloric and spiritual traditions.

Joy and Positivity: The blue tit’s vibrant colors and playful behavior represent happiness,
cheerfulness, and a reminder to embrace joy and positivity even in difficult times.
Love and Loyalty: Folklore often associates blue tits with love, trust, and enduring faithfulness —these birds are monogamous and known for lifelong pair bonding, making them symbols of committed partnership and loyalty.
Hope and Renewal: Encounters with blue tits are viewed as omens of hope, new beginnings, and brighter futures after adversity.
Adaptability and Resourcefulness: Blue tits are known for their intelligence and ability to
thrive in changing environments, symbolizing resilience and making the most of available
resources.
Communication and Self-Expression: The species is vocal and expressive, offering a metaphor for clear communication and encouragement to openly share feelings and truths.
Spiritual Meaning: The blue coloration is often tied to spiritual awakening, divine intelligence,
and healing, while the bird itself might be interpreted as a messenger of spiritual guidance
and connection.

Cultural and Mythic Contexts: In Celtic and European folklore, blue tits represent good luck, honor, and protection—sometimes regarded as carriers of souls or spirits.

In sum, the blue tit in Dutch symbolism embodies themes of love, hope, joy, and spiritual
guidance, carrying a gentle but enduring message of faithfulness and renewal within the
broader tapestry of Dutch folklore and natural tradition.

Simorgh

However, historically and mythologically, the Simorgh (or Simurgh) is a legendary Persian bird often associated with divinity, wisdom, and mythical power in Persian literature and Sufism. It is a large, benevolent, mythical bird said to possess great knowledge and spiritual
significance, sometimes seen as a symbol of the unity of all beings or divine intervention.

The Avesta (Zoroastrian holy scripture), specifically the Bahman Yasht and Rashnu Yasht,
where Simurgh is mentioned as Saêna, a divine bird associated with healing, fertility, and
divine blessing, roosting on the cosmic Tree of Life that contains all medicinal plants.
Minooye Kherad (a Zoroastrian wisdom text from the late Sassanid era), which elaborates on Simurgh’s role in healing and seeds of all plants.
The Shahnameh (The Book of Kings) by Ferdowsi, a seminal Persian epic poem from around 1000 years ago, that narrates the Simurgh raising the hero Zal, assisting in the birth of Rostam through surgical knowledge, and healing wounds with magical feathers.
“The Conference of the Birds” by Farid ud-Din Attar, a 12th-century Sufi mystical poem,
where the narrative centers on thirty birds searching for the Simurgh, eventually realizing
they themselves embody the Simurgh, symbolizing divine unity and spiritual awakening.
These texts collectively form the core of the spiritual and mystical traditions relating to the
Simurgh as a divine, healing, wise, and unifying figure in Persian and Sufi cosmologies.

The phrase “Simurgh is 30 birds” comes from the famous 12th-century Sufi poem “The
Conference of the Birds” by Farid ud-Din Attar. In this allegorical tale, a gathering of birds
embarks on a spiritual quest to find their king, the Simurgh. The journey involves crossing
seven valleys symbolizing the stages of spiritual growth.
Out of the many birds on this journey, only thirty complete it and reach the Valley of Simurgh.
When they finally meet the Simurgh, they are astonished to discover that the Simurgh itself is none other than their collective selves. The name “Simurgh” is a pun in Persian: “si” means thirty and “morgh” means birds, hence “thirty birds.” This revelation symbolizes the spiritual realization that the divine they sought is actually the true nature of themselves, emphasizing unity and self-realization.

Meaning of the Eternal Knot with the Number 7

The Eternal Knot itself symbolizes: Infinity , the cycle of life and death,The connectedness of everything in the universeThe intertwining of time , space , and consciousness

When you combine this with the sacred number 7 , you get a powerful spiritual deepening.

Symbolism of the Number 7

The number 7 is found in almost every spiritual tradition as a number of holiness , mysticism , and completion . Some examples:

Tradition / Culture	Symbolism of 7
Buddhism	Seven Steps of the Buddha after His Birth
Hinduism	Seven chakras (energy points)
Christianity	Seven days of creation
Judaism	Seven-branched candelabra ( Menorah )
Islam	Seven heavens, seven rounds around the Kaaba
Nature & Cosmos	Seven celestial bodies visible to the naked eye

What does an Eternal Knot of 7 mean?

An Eternal Knot with 7 loops or connections represents:

Perfect connection of body, mind and soul
The eternal cycle of transformation and spiritual growth in 7 phases
The coming together of timelessness (knot) and completeness (7)
A balance between the material (the knot is tangible) and the spiritual (the symbolism of 7)

The Eternal Knot , also known as the Infinity Knot , is a powerful symbol found in several spiritual traditions, most notably within Buddhism , Hinduism , and Celtic culture . Here is some background information on this fascinating symbol:

Meaning of the Eternal Knot

General Symbolism :

The Eternal Knot consists of an endless loop of lines that have no beginning or end.
It symbolizes infinity , the eternal cycle of life , and the interconnectedness of all things .

In Buddhism

Known as the Shrivatsa or Endless Knot .
One of the Eight Lucky Symbols ( Ashtamangala ) in Tibetan Buddhism.
Stands for:
- The Buddha’s infinite wisdom and compassion .
- The connection between cause and effect (karma).
- The idea that everything in the universe is interconnected.

In Hinduism

The knot is sometimes associated with eternal love , life cycles , and immortality .
Also a reference to the cyclical nature of existence : birth, death and rebirth.

Celtic Culture

Similar knots, such as the Celtic knot , are common in ancient Celtic art.
Often represent eternal connectedness , life paths , and spiritual growth

Frisian Eternal Knot

The Flower of Life and Overlapping circles grid

The Flower of Life is one of the most iconic symbols in sacred geometry, representing the interconnectedness of all life and the fundamental patterns of creation.

What is the Flower of Life?

The Flower of Life is a geometric figure made up of multiple evenly-spaced, overlapping circles arranged in a hexagonal pattern, resembling a flower. The pattern can expand infinitely, symbolizing endless creation and unity.

Basic Structure:

Composed of 19 overlapping circles within a larger circle (though the pattern can extend beyond).
Forms interlocking petals resembling flowers.
The central design often contains the Seed of Life, which is a smaller version made of 7 circles.

Meaning and Symbolism

The Flower of Life is considered a visual expression of: Unity of all living things, Interconnectedness of the universe, Blueprint for life and creation, Sacred structure behind nature and reality

Flower of Life in NatureThe pattern reflects: See Geometry of Life – Geometry of Plants – Geometry of Human Life

Honeycombs (hexagonal structures)
Snowflakes
Flower petal arrangements
The structure of molecules and atoms

An overlapping circles grid is a geometric pattern of repeating, overlapping circles of an equal radius in two-dimensional space. Commonly, designs are based on circles centered on triangles (with the simple, two circle form named vesica piscis) or on the square lattice pattern of points.

Patterns of seven overlapping circles appear in historical artefacts from the 7th century BC onward; they become a frequently used ornament in the Roman Empire period, and survive into medieval artistic traditions both in Islamic art (girih decorations) and in Gothic art. The name “Flower of Life” is given to the overlapping circles pattern in New Age publications.

Of special interest is the hexafoil or six-petal rosette derived from the “seven overlapping circles” pattern, also known as “Sun of the Alps” from its frequent use in alpine folk art in the 17th and 18th century.

Triangular grid of overlapping circles

The triangular lattice form, with circle radii equal to their separation is called a seven overlapping circles grid.^[1] It contains 6 circles intersecting at a point, with a 7th circle centered on that intersection.

Overlapping circles with similar geometrical constructions have been used infrequently in various of the decorative arts since ancient times.

Cultural significance

Near East

The oldest known occurrence of the “overlapping circles” pattern is dated to the 7th or 6th century BCE, found on the threshold of the palace of Assyrian king Aššur-bāni-apli in Dur Šarrukin (now in the Louvre).^[2]

The design becomes more widespread in the early centuries of the Common Era. One early example are five patterns of 19 overlapping circles drawn on the granite columns at the Temple of Osiris in Abydos, Egypt,^[3] and a further five on column opposite the building. They are drawn in red ochre and some are very faint and difficult to distinguish.^[4] The patterns are graffiti, and not found in natively Egyptian ornaments. They are mostly dated to the early centuries of the Christian Era^[5] although medieval or even modern (early 20th century) origin cannot be ruled out with certainty, as the drawings are not mentioned in the extensive listings of graffiti at the temple compiled by Margaret Murray in 1904.^[6]

Similar patterns were sometimes used in England as apotropaic marks to keep witches from entering buildings.^[7] Consecration crosses indicating points in churches anointed with holy water during a church’s dedication also take the form of overlapping circles.

A girih pattern that can be drawn with straightedge and compass

Window cage at Topkapı Palace, using pattern

In Islamic art, the pattern is one of several arrangements of circles (others being used for fourfold or fivefold designs) used to construct grids for Islamic geometric patterns. It is used to design patterns with 6- and 12-pointed stars as well as hexagons in the style called girih. The resulting patterns however characteristically conceal the construction grid, presenting instead a design of interlaced strapwork.^[8]

Europe

Patterns of seven overlapping circles are found on Roman mosaics, for example at Herod’s palace in the 1st century BC.

The design is found on one of the silver plaques of the Late Roman hoard of Kaiseraugst (discovered 1961).^] It is later found as an ornament in Gothic architecture, and still later in European folk art of the early modern period.

High medieval examples include the Cosmati pavements in Westminster Abbey (13th century).^[11] Leonardo da Vinci explicitly discussed the mathematical proportions of the design

Frisian Craftmanship

Frisian patterns are very comparable to Islamic Patterns. They express the same Thruth “Haqq” in Arabic and these patterns lead to the Truth. All Frisian will agree with Goethe who says:

“Stupid that everyone in his case

Is praising his particular opinion!

If Islam means submission to God,

We all live and die in Islam.”

(West-East Divan)

See:Goethe, the “refugee” and his Message for our times

The classic study of the cosmological principles found in the patterns of Islamic art and how they relate to sacred geometry and the perennial philosophy: Is the book Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach by Keith Critchlow

For centuries the nature and meaning of Islamic art has been wrongly regarded in the West as mere decoration. In truth, because the portrayal of human and animal forms has always been discouraged on Islamic religious principles that forbid idolatry, the abstract art of Islam represents the sophisticated development of a nonnaturalistic tradition. Through this tradition, Islamic art has maintained its chief aim: the affirmation of unity as expressed in diversity.

In this fascinating study the author explores the idea that unlike medieval Christian art, in which the polarization of such forms and patterns was relegated to a background against which to set sacred images, the geometrical patterns of Islamic art can reveal the intrinsic cosmological laws affecting all creation. Their primary function is to guide the mind from the mundane world of appearances toward its underlying reality.

Numerous drawings connect the art of Islam to the Pythagorean science of mathematics, and through these images we can see how an Earth-centered view of the cosmos provides renewed significance to those number patterns produced by the orbits of the planets.

The author shows the essential philosophical and practical basis of every art creation–whether a tile, carpet, or wall–and how this use of mathematical tessellations affirms the essential unity of all things. An invaluable study for all those interested in sacred art, Islamic Patterns is also a rich source of inspiration for artists and designers. Read here the book

**Geometry Summer School 2025: Sacred Architecture & the Cosmos from The King’s Foundation**

Millstone , maelstroms and Frisian craft patterns

A whirlpool is a body of rotating water produced by opposing currents or a current running into an obstacle. Small whirlpools form when a bath or a sink is draining. More powerful ones formed in seas or oceans may be called maelstroms (/ˈmeɪlstrɒm, -rəm/ MAYL-strom, – strəm).One of the earliest uses in English of the Allan Poe in his short story ” Scandinavian word malström or malstrøm was by Edgar A Descent into the Maelström” (1841). The Nordic word itself is derived from the Dutch word maelstrom (pronounced [ˈmaːlstroːm]
ⓘ ; modern spelling maalstroom), from malen (‘to mill’ or ‘to grind’) and stroom (‘stream’), to form the meaning ‘grinding current’ or literally ‘mill-stream’, in the sense of milling (grinding) grain.

Vortex is the proper term for a whirlpool that has a downdraft. In narrow ocean straits with fast flowing water, whirlpools are often caused by tides. Many stories tell of ships being sucked into a maelstrom, although only smaller craft are actually in danger.] Smaller whirlpools appear at river rapids[] and can be observed downstream of artificial structures such as weirs and dams. Large cataracts, such as Niagara Falls, produce strong whirlpools.

See The wisdom of Frisian Craftmanship

Spinning , Distaff and Frisian Craft

distaff (/ˈdɪstɑːf/, /ˈdɪstæf/, also called a rock^[is a tool used in spinning. It is designed to hold the unspun fibers, keeping them untangled and thus easing the spinning process. It is most commonly used to hold flax and sometimes wool, but can be used for any type of fibre. Fiber is wrapped around the distaff and tied in place with a piece of ribbon or string. The word comes from Low German dis, meaning a bunch of flax, connected with staff.

As an adjective, the term distaff is used to describe the female side of a family. The corresponding term for the male side of a family is the “spear” side.

Form

In Western Europe, there were two common forms of distaves, depending on the spinning method. The traditional form is a staff held under one’s arm while using a spindle – see the figure illustration. It is about 3 feet (0.9 m) long, held under the left arm, with the right hand used in drawing the fibres from it.^[2] This version is the older of the two, as spindle spinning predates spinning on a wheel.

A distaff can also be mounted as an attachment to a spinning wheel. On a wheel, it is placed next to the bobbin, where it is in easy reach of the spinner. This version is shorter, but otherwise does not differ from the spindle version.

By contrast, the traditional Russian distaff, used both with spinning wheels and with spindles, is L-shaped and consists of a horizontal board, known as the dontse (Russian: донце), and a flat vertical piece, frequently oar-shaped, to the inner side of which the bundle of fibers was tied or pinned. The spinner sat on the dontse, with the vertical piece of the distaff to her left, and drew the fibers out with her left hand. The distaff was often richly carved and painted and was an important element of Russian folk art.^[3]

Recently,^[when?] handspinners have begun using wrist distaves to hold their fiber; these are made of flexible material, such as braided yarn, and can swing freely from the wrist. A wrist distaff generally consists of a loop with a tail, at the end of which is a tassel, often with beads on each strand. The spinner wraps the roving or tow around the tail and through the loop to keep it out of the way, and to keep it from getting snagged.

Dressing

Dressing a distaff is the act of wrapping the fiber around the distaff. With flax, the wrapping is done by laying the flax fibers down, approximately parallel to each other and the distaff, then carefully rolling the fibers onto the distaff. A ribbon or string is then tied at the top and loosely wrapped around the fibers to keep them in place.

Read here: Myths of northern lands, narrated with special reference to literature and art by Guerber, Hélène Adeline.

The millstone and sacred Geometry

The cosmogenesis of dwelling: ancient (eco)logical practices of divining the constructed world

The disenchantment with scientific progress has awakened a new environmental awareness in our culture so that today we are reconsidering the constructed world with respect to the position of the sun to create sustainable environments. This “new” approach to the design of the constructed world is based on ancient traditions that have been lost due to new technologies that have allowed us to defy nature. These ancient traditions were (eco)logical—the forces of nature were used to shape the constructed world to create comfortable dwellings that responded to prevailing environmental conditions. The built world was auspicious because it was oriented towards the cosmos: the positions of the sun, the stars and the planets. Human dwelling was considered to be a microcosm of the universe and was associated with spirituality. The act of building itself was a religious rite. Divining the constructed world was a talismanic operation that the ancients used to orient their earthly creations to be “square with the world” and began with the human body at its center and origin. The cosmological origins of building will be demonstrated by considering the ancient practices of Vāstu Śāstra and Feng Shui as a way of reconsidering present-day body-centered (eco)logical approaches to design.

Divining the Constructed World

From the trunk of a gum tree Numbakula fashioned the sacred pole (kauwa-auwa) and, after anointing it with blood, climbed it and disappeared into the sky. This pole represents a cosmic axis (axis mundi), for it is around the sacred pole that territory becomes habitable, hence is transformed into a world.

Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane¹

Divining the constructed world was a talismanic operation that the Ancients used to orient their earthly creations to be “square with the world.” The Ancients constructed according to divine co-ördinating principles to align their built works with the cardinal directions of the earth with respect to the cosmos. This was an (eco)logical operation that intended to embody the divine in an earthly construction that began with the human body at its center and origin. The body marked the beginning and the first point of contact with the heavens through its axis mundi, which in the body is the line of the spine in the erect human figure. In this way, the earthly microcosm could be brought into alignment with the macrocosm of the universe.

Divination is a geomantic procedure. The word geomancy is derived from the Greek geo, literally meaning the earth, and manteia, meaning divination or coming from above. Geomancy is the act of projecting lines onto the earth from the cosmos above through marking the ground and encircling. This talismanic operation projects regulating lines upon the ground to provide auspicious conditions for the construction of the built environment and to protect the constructed world. This is a “divine” act with heavenly origins.

The divine resources for ancient geomantic procedures included the positions and the paths of the sun, the moon, the stars and the planets. The instrument the Ancients used to take their measurements was the gnomon, literally, interpreter. It was a stick, often in the form of a human figure , which was used to help them interpret their position on earth with respect to the greater universe of the cosmos by being encircled: the intersection of the gnomon’s cast shadow and the circle in the morning and the evening at the summer solstice located solar east and west from which north and south could be determined . This (eco)logical procedure resulted in built works that considered the environment through solar and stellar orientation.

**Two Borneo tribesmen in recent times measuring the sun’s shadow length at summer solstice with a gnomon. Note the human figure atop the gnomon**

**Diagram of the ancient Chinese divisions of the celestial sphere and their relations with the horizon**

The View Near a Black Hole, drawn by April Hobart, CXC: In the center of a swirling whirlpool of hot gas is a black hole. Studies of the bright light emitted by the swirling gas frequently indicate not only that a black hole is present, but also likely attributes. (Photo by: Photo 12/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

The Whirlpool Galaxy, also known as M51 or NGC 5194, is having a close encounter with a nearby companion galaxy, NGC 5195, just off the upper edge of this image.

Millstone: The Creation of a New Coalescence Consciousness of Opposites

This study is about the symbolism of Millstone appeared in psychotherapy like sand play therapy with symbol work. Symbols not only deliver meanings but also have numinous power, which produces transformation through powerful energy from emotional experience. Symbols help human’s mentality develop by compromising opposites which cause conflict. This study is to examine the characteristic of Millstone in human history and the symbolic
meaning which appears in mythology and tales and alchemy, and to explain universal and cultural meaning of millstone connected to psychological symbolism. Millstone represents pain through sacrifice of grain, death and the creation of new consciousness as a symbol of the rebirth. Also, it explains the circulation of original nature as a symbol of destiny to overcome by the integration of anima and animus. The millstone described as the symbol of Self in the marriage of mythology represents the coniunctio oppositorum between men and women, a combination of yin and yang. It is the symbol of wholeness integrating conscious and unconscious. Through this study, we consider that millstone is the psychic center of the ego- Self axis and the individuation in the psychotherapy is the process of unceasing transformation of one’s whole personality which experiences the process of balancing, regulating and unifying. Consequently, millstone functions as symbolic intermediation that leads to the center of one’s whole psyche.
Read here

The Norns and the “Flap aan de wand” table

The Norns, similar to the Fates, they spin the threads of destiny by Yggdrasil, the World Tree. Represent Urd (Past), Verdandi (Present), Skuld (Future). Symbolism: Spinning reflects how past, present, and future are interwoven, shaping all existence

https://roosjehindeloopen.com/rh-collectie/

The three Norns or three Fates are maybe forgotten but you can find some presence in Wales in the Castel Coch:

We find back the 3 faces of the three Norns on the back “flap on the wall” table and also their distaffs with the 3 legs of the table:

Distaff Shape: A distaff often has a long, slender, spindle-like appearance with a widened or carved top for holding fibers.

Table Legs Resembling Distaff: Many fold-down or wall-mounted flap tables, especially antique or rustic ones, have legs that are turned (wood-turned on a lathe) into spindle shapes:

The faces of the 3 Norns disappear and became knots but the connection piece is always the same in a wave form of a thread:

The table legs resemble a distaff, intentionally , it can evoke Aa aesthetic tied to old-world craftsmanship: This resemblance is a practical design choice from woodworking traditions, and it might carry symbolic echoes, especially in cultures where the distaff was a significant household tool.

The Diftaff was very special in the Middelages : “Quenouille” is French for distaff, the tool used in spinning to hold fibers, historically associated with women’s domestic work. It was so uimportant that yopu can find an“Évangiles des Quenouilles”, or The Distaff Gospels, it is a 15th-century French collection of popular beliefs, superstitions, and proverbial wisdom, supposedly gathered from women spinning at their distaffs.

Furniture design echoing the distaff can intentionally reference the domestic, female-centered spaces where knowledge, stories, and traditions were passed down — much like the Distaff Gospels themselves. The work presents itself humorously as “gospels” — not religious scripture, but rather the collected “truths” women exchanged while working, often reflecting folk beliefs, moral lessons, and practical advice.

Why “Distaff Gospels“?

In medieval Europe, spinning at the distaff was a communal and domestic female space, where women exchanged stories, advice, and gossip. The title plays on the contrast between sacred religious texts (gospels) and everyday, earthy wisdom passed between women — elevating domestic knowledge in a playful way.

But the most important pice was the front of the table: the Frisian Eternal Knot or Flower of Life. ( see above)

We can call the tables and another crafts a kind of Frisian Folk Mandalas for the daily use of the Family:

Conclusion

The wisdom of Frisian craft, particularly in clockmaking and other traditional arts from Friesland, reflects deep-rooted values of precision, resilience, respect for tradition, and harmony with nature. Here’s a breakdown of the underlying wisdom embedded in Frisian craftsmanship: Wisdom Reflected in Frisian Craft:

Patience and Precision

Frisian clockmakers were known for their meticulous attention to detail. The delicate mechanisms and ornate decorations took months of steady, focused work, teaching the value of:

Endurance over instant results, Craftsmanship over mass production, Pride in perfecting one’s skill,,Good work cannot be rushed — time is both the master and the measure.

Respect for Time

Frisian clocks, in particular, embody the philosophical relationship with time: Time is cyclical (reflected in moon phases and astronomical elements) – Time governs life, work, and nature’s rhythms – The passing of time demands mindfulness, not haste – The clock reminds owners: Master time, don’t be mastered by it — a reflection of both humility and responsibility.

Connection to Nature

Frisian crafts often incorporate natural elements — woodcarvings, floral designs, or ship motifs — symbolizing: The interconnectedness of humanity and the environment – The rhythm of tides, seasons, and life cycles – Sustainability, using local materials like oak or pine for lasting beauty

Cultural Identity and Storytelling

Frisian craft preserves oral history and regional pride, telling stories through: *Family crests or local symbols on clocks (Scenes of Friesland’s landscapes) in carvings or paintings -* Passing down objects as heirlooms, keeping stories alive across generations – A well-made object carries the soul of its maker and the spirit of its land

Simplicity Meets Elegance

True to Dutch design sensibilities, Frisian craft reflects functional beauty, blending:

Practical engineering (precise clockworks, sturdy furniture) -* Subtle artistry (hand-painted details, symbolic carvings) – Minimal excess, maximum meaning

Legacy of Frisian Wisdom

Even today, the wisdom of Frisian craft is visible in: -Dedication to high standards – Interweaving function with beauty – Honoring tradition while embracing innovation – Living life in harmony with time and nature

Art That Expresses Truth

Ananda Coomaraswamy, deeply rooted in both Eastern and Western traditions, emphasized that the traditional artist or craftsman was not creating to express individuality, but to reveal the timeless:

“The traditional craftsman did not ‘express himself,’ he expressed truths.”

Coomaraswamy rejected the modern cult of originality and innovation. For him, traditional art and craft were “vehicles for eternal wisdom“. The form was not arbitrary—it was a symbolic expression of metaphysical principles, passed down through sacred traditions. Every detail, from proportions to ornamentation, had a purpose that reached beyond aesthetics.

“Work is for the sake of the work done, and not for the profit therefrom.”

In this sense, “work was prayer “—a form of contemplation, a discipline of the soul.

The eternal wisdom formed with Sacred Geometry is universal and is based on the One Truth , “Haqq “in arabic.

Craft and Tradition: The Sacred Art of Making

In the modern world, craftsmanship is often reduced to technique, productivity, or personal expression. But in the eyes of Traditionalist thinkers like René Guénon, Ananda Coomaraswamy, and Frithjof Schuon, craft is something far more profound—it is a sacred act rooted in metaphysical principles and spiritual symbolism.

Craft as Sacred Knowledge

René Guénon viewed traditional craft not as utilitarian labor but as a means of cosmic participation. The traditional craftsman, for Guénon, was engaged in work that reflected the divine order:

“A craft is not merely a technique, but a transmission of a traditional knowledge, the application of principles that are ultimately metaphysical.”

In traditional civilizations, there was no division between the sacred and the secular in labor. Every craft, from carpentry to stonemasonry, was infused with symbolic meaning. The tools themselves—like the compass, the square, or the chisel—served as metaphors for universal truths. The craftsman, through repeated and intentional action, participated in the divine act of creation.

Work and contemplation were not separate in traditional societies. A craftsman worked not just with his hands but also with an awareness of the symbolic and spiritual meaning of his work.

The tool, the material, and the process had symbolic dimensions. For instance, in masonry or metalwork, the transformation of raw material symbolized the transformation of the soul.

Initiation and Guilds

Guénon emphasized the role of initiatic craft guilds—especially in the West, such as medieval masonry guilds—which preserved esoteric teachings and transmitted initiatic knowledge through symbols, rituals, and oral transmission.

These guilds were structured hierarchically and transmitted cosmological knowledge embedded in tools, geometry, architecture, and ritual.

The compass and square, for example, symbolized heaven and earth or spirit and matter.

The architecture of temples or cathedrals followed sacred geometry, aligning physical structures with cosmic principles.

Degeneration in Modernity

Guénon argued that in modern times, the loss of sacred and symbolic understanding has led to the degeneration of crafts into mere technical skills, disconnected from their metaphysical roots.

This reflects his larger thesis: modernity is a descent into materialism, fragmentation, and loss of spiritual orientation””. The disappearance of guilds, desacralization of labor, and mass industrialization exemplify this decline.

see:Wisdom of Craftmanship Versus Modernity

Macrocosmos- Microcosmos

Amleth (Old Norse: Amlóði; Latinized as Amlethus) is a figure in a medieval Scandinavian legend, the direct inspiration of the character of Prince Hamlet, the hero of William Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. The chief authority for the legend of Amleth is Saxo Grammaticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his Gesta Danorum, completed at the beginning of the 13th century.^[1] Saxo’s version is supplemented by Latin and vernacular compilations from a much later date. In all versions, prince Amleth (Amblothæ) is the son of Horvendill (Orwendel), king of the Jutes. It has often been assumed that the story is ultimately derived from an Old Icelandic poem, but no such poem has been found; the extant Icelandic versions, known as the Ambales-saga or Amloda-saga, are considerably later than Saxo.^2] Amleth’s name is not mentioned in Old-Icelandic regnal lists before Saxo. Only the 15th-century Sagnkrønike from Stockholm may contain some older elements.

– Name

The Old Icelandic form Amlóði is recorded twice in Snorri Sturluson‘s Prose Edda. According to the section Skaldskaparmal,

the expression Amlóða mólu (‘Amlóði’s quern-stone‘) is a kenning for the sea, grinding the skerries to sand.^] In a poem by the 10th-century skald Snæbjörn the name of the legendary hero Amlóði is intrinsically connected to the word líðmeldr (‘ale-flower’), leading to the conclusion that the nine mermaids, who operated the “hand-mill of the sea”, “long ago ground the ale-flour of Amlóði”.The association with flour milling and beer brewing, the gold carried around, the net used to catch people and the association with the nine female waves place Amleth on a par with the deity Aegir and his wife Rán.

The late 12th-century Amlethus, Amblothæ may easily be latinizations of the Old Norse name. The etymology of the name is unknown, but there are various suggestions.

Icelandic Amlóði is recorded as a term for a fool or simpleton in reference to the character of the early modern Icelandic romance or folk tale.^[9] One suggestion^[10] is based on the “fool” or “trickster” interpretation of the name, composing the name from Old Norse ama “to vex, annoy, molest” and óðr “fierceness, madness” (also in the theonym Odin). The Irish and Scottish word amhlair, which in contemporary vernacular denotes a dull, stupid person, is handed down from the ancient name for a court jester or fool, who entertained the king but also surreptitiously advised him through riddles and antics.

A more recent suggestion is based on the Eddaic kenning associating Amlóði with the mythological mill grótti, and derives it from the Old Irish name Admlithi “great-grinding”, attested in Togail Bruidne Dá Derga.^[11]

Attention has also been drawn to the similarity of Amleth to the Irish name Amhladh (variously Amhlaidh, Amhlaigh, Amhlaide), itself a Gaelic adaptation of the Norse name Olaf.^[12]

In a controversial suggestion going back to 1937, the sequence æmluþ contained in the 8th-century Old Frisian runic inscription on the Westeremden yew-stick has been interpreted as a reference to “Amleth”.

Ameland

Ameland is a young island. It is risen from the sea only in the youngest era of geological history of the earth, the Holocene (the geological epoch from 11,700 years ago to the present). The early signs of the origins of the wadden island Ameland came into being after the last ice age. The temperature rose, the icecaps melted, the sea level rose and for our surroundings that meant the North Sea advanced towards the land.

The exact etymology of Ameland is debated, but it likely derives from older Germanic or Frisian roots: “Ame” may come from an old word for water, river, or wetland. “Land” clearly means “land” or “territory” in Dutch and Germanic languages. So, Ameland likely means “land by the water”, river land”, or “wetland area”, which fits geographically since it’s an island surrounded by sea and tidal flats.”

But it is more realistic to say that Ameland come fom Amlodi ,the Old Icelandic form Amlóði is recorded twice in Snorri Sturluson‘s Prose Edda. According to the section Skaldskaparmal, the expression Amlóða mólu (‘Amlóði’s quern-stone‘) is a kenning for the sea, grinding the skerries to sand

Powerful Jungian symbols: the mill and the bread

In Jungian psychology, symbols hold powerful and often universal significance in the human psyche. The mill, as a symbol, can be interpreted in various ways within this framework. Here are a few potential Jungian interpretations of the symbol of the mill:

The mill can be seen as a symbol of transformation and renewal. Just as a mill grinds grains into flour, it signifies the process of transforming raw or unconscious material into something refined and useful. In Jungian terms, this can represent the journey of individuation, where one moves from a state of unconsciousness to self-awareness and self-realization.

Jung often emphasized the importance of the mandala as a symbol of wholeness and the integration of the self. The circular shape of a millstone or the circular motion of a mill wheel can be likened to a mandala. The mill can represent the journey toward psychological integration and balance.

In Jungian psychology, the anima (the inner feminine aspect in men) and the animus (the inner masculine aspect in women) play significant roles in the individuation process. The mill can symbolize the anima or animus as a guiding force in the process of inner transformation and self-discovery.

The Two parts of the millstone ( up Female, down Male)

The mill could be seen as one such archetype, representing the idea of work, productivity, and the cyclical nature of life — themes that resonate with people across cultures and time periods.The turning of the mill wheel can symbolize the cyclical nature of life, death, and rebirth. Just as the wheel of the mill never stops turning, life also follows a continuous cycle of birth, growth, decay, and renewal.

The process of alchemy, which involves transforming base metals into gold, is a metaphor for spiritual and psychological transformation. The mill, with its grinding and refining process, can symbolize the alchemical journey of turning the “base” aspects of the psyche into something more valuable and enlightened.

The mill as symbol of industriousness

The mill, with its continuous grinding and processing of grain, represents the idea of hard work and diligence. Just as the millstone tirelessly grinds grains into flour, individuals who embrace the symbol of the mill in their psyche may be inclined to value and embody qualities such as persistence, dedication, and a strong work ethic.

In a Jungian sense, the concept of industriousness can extend beyond external work to include inner work and self-improvement. The process of self-discovery and self-realization often requires significant effort and dedication. The mill can symbolize the inner “grinding” and transformation that occurs when one engages in the exploration of the self and works to integrate various aspects of the psyche.

Industriousness is not limited to physical labor but can also encompass creative and intellectual pursuits. The mill’s grinding motion can symbolize the process of generating ideas, creating art, or producing meaningful work. This interpretation emphasizes the idea that industriousness isn’t just about labor but also about the generation of valuable output.

The mill’s cyclical motion, as it continually turns the wheel, can represent the cyclical nature of industriousness and productivity. It highlights the idea that effort and hard work are ongoing processes, much like the seasons or the passage of time. This cyclical nature can also symbolize the need for balance between work and rest.

The act of grinding grains to make flour carries rich symbolic significance, often associated with themes beyond its literal meaning. Here are some interpretations of the symbol of grinding for making flour:

Grinding grains into flour is a transformative process. The symbol can represent the idea of transformation in general, where something raw or unrefined is processed and refined into a more valuable and useful form. This can be applied to personal growth and development, where individuals work on themselves to become better versions of themselves.

Just as grains are ground to make flour, individuals may go through difficult experiences that shape and refine their character. This symbol can be a reminder that personal growth often involves facing and overcoming challenges.

The act of grinding can be physically demanding and may involve suffering. In a symbolic context, it can represent the idea of enduring suffering or hardship for a greater purpose. This connects to the idea that meaningful achievements often come with sacrifices and challenges.It can also represent the qualities of patience and persistence. Just as the millstone keeps turning, individuals may need to persevere through long and arduous journeys in life to achieve their goals.

The process of grinding can also symbolize the importance of balance and moderation. Too much grinding can reduce grains to dust, while too little can leave them unprocessed. This can be a reminder to find a balance in life’s endeavors and not to overexert or neglect important aspects of one’s life.

Incorporating the symbol of grinding for making flour into storytelling or personal reflection can add depth to the narrative and offer insights into themes of transformation, personal growth, endurance, and balance. It serves as a reminder that even mundane tasks can hold profound symbolic meaning.

The symbols of the flour and the bread

Bread is a rich and universal symbol that holds various meanings across cultures and throughout history. Here are some common symbolic interpretations of bread:

Bread is often seen as a symbol of basic sustenance and nourishment. It represents the fundamental sustenance needed for physical survival. In a broader sense, it can also symbolize the emotional and spiritual nourishment required for a fulfilling life.

In many cultures Bread has historically been a staple food shared among people, symbolizing communal bonds, sharing, and hospitality. Breaking bread with others often signifies unity and the sharing of resources, both material and emotional. Also, in some cultures and religious traditions, bread is used as an offering or sacrifice to deities or spirits. It represents a gesture of devotion and giving back.

Bread’s association with grains and the cycle of planting, harvesting, and grinding gives it a connection to the cycles of life and fertility. It can represent the cycle of birth, growth, and renewal.

In many religions, bread plays a central role in rituals and symbolism. In Christianity, for example, the Eucharist or Holy Communion involves the consumption of bread as a representation of the body of Christ. In this context, bread symbolizes spiritual nourishment and connection with the divine.

From an alchemical perspective, bread is the result of a transformational process involving the mixing and fermentation of ingredients. This can symbolize the transformative power of time and effort in turning raw materials into something more valuable and nourishing. It can also be seen as a metaphor for inner transformation and personal growth.

As a basic food staple, bread is often associated with abundance and prosperity. It can symbolize the fulfillment of material needs and the rewards of hard work and productivity.

The process of making bread involves combining separate ingredients into a cohesive whole. This can symbolize the idea of unity and oneness, where different elements come together to create something greater than the sum of its parts.

Bread, with its simple ingredients of flour, water, and yeast, can symbolize humility and the value of simplicity in life. It reminds individuals to appreciate the simple pleasures and necessities of life.

The symbolic meanings of mills, grinding, and bread are versatile and often depend on cultural, religious, and personal contexts. They are powerful symbols that resonate with many aspects of human experience, from physical sustenance to spiritual and emotional fulfillment.

– Thread-Spirit: The Symbolism of Knotting and the Fiber Arts

Written after years of studying both the textile arts and traditional symbolism, The Thread-Spirit is a compendium of the wisdom of both essential human exercises. Inasmuch as we express who we are through what we create and use, through our technologies, we are the human beings described in this book.

The technology of traditional societies is based on the application of metaphysical principles to practical ends. This is particularly clear in the case of the fiber arts— knotting, weaving, spinning, basketry, and the like—where a worldwide symbolism exists which appears to have its origins in Paleolithic times.

There is an underlying historical continuity to this symbolism that survives, but has been forced underground with the rise of rationalism. These traditions survived into the 20th century in more remote parts of the world, but they were generally no longer understood. The Thread-Spirit attempts to examine the traditions, as they existed and continue to exist, and reunite them with their ancient meanings.

The technology of traditional societies is based on the application of metaphysical principles to practical ends. This is particularly clear in the case of the fiber arts— knotting, weaving, spinning, basketry, and the like—where a worldwide symbolism exists which appears to have its origins in Paleolithic times. Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy referred to this symbolic complex as the sutratman (thread-spirit) doctrine and it is well documented by the literary, artistic and archeological remains.

Using a consistent set of symbols, our ancient ancestors sought to explain the relations governing the social order, the workings of the cosmos, and the mysteries surrounding birth and rebirth. The eye of the needle, for example, was understood as the entrance to heaven while the thread was the Spirit that sought to return to its Source. Creation is a kind of sewing in this version of the story as God wields his solar, pneumatic needle. Man is conceived as a jointed creature similar to a marionette or puppet but held together by an invisible thread-spirit. When this thread is cut, a man dies, comes “unstrung,” and his bones separate at the joints.

It was the American art historian, Carl Schuster who first discovered the significance of body joints in this symbolism and he believed that it was based on an analogy with the plant world where regeneration is possible from a shoot or sprout. Body joints play a role in such diverse matters as labyrinths, continuous-line drawings, cat’s cradles, dismemberment and cannibalism, and various rituals meant to ensure rebirth and the continuity of the social order. Read here :The Thread-Spirit Doctrine:An Ancient Metaphor in Religion and Metaphysics with Prehistoric Roots

– Lo-Shu , the labyrinth and the Tortoise

A journey from the primordial China of the legendary rulers to the maze of the palace of Knossos to the sovereignty of Saturn, in an attempt to unravel a plot which – like a dance – turns out to be based on rules animated by a lost science of rhythm whose vestiges are manifested in diagrams cosmological information informed by the observation of the highest heaven: the circumpolar region as it must have appeared in 3000 BC, different from the current one due to the precessional cycle.

We do not know how the original concept of the labyrinth, probably Minoan, was born. In any case, it was more concrete than the Greek references cited indicate, because the definition of “remarkable (stone) structure” sounds derivative and vaguely metaphorical. It is conceivable that the name of a certain structure attributed to Daedalus became a generic designation — as happened, for example, with the proper name “Caesar,” which came to mean the epitome of sovereign power and rank, as reflected in the German word “Kaiser” and the Russian word “tsar”.[1]

Kern thinks it more likely that the primary use of the word was related to a dance, whose pattern would “crystallize” much later in permanent forms, such as graffiti, petroglyphs and – finally – built structures. However plausible it may seem, this hypothesis does not shed much light on the first meaning of this drawing and on the reasons for its established form, the one we usually refer to as Cretan o knossian. Nor does it explain why such an important “structure” as a king’s palace should have the shape of a dance path.

While it is true that a Latin given name such as Caesar has come to mean “the epitome of sovereign power and rank”, on the other hand we may find that the English word King and the German one King may share a common root with the word having the same meaning in the Turkic and Mongolian languages: Khan

see Lo-Shu , the labyrinth and the Tortoise

And THE METAPHYSICAL SYMBOLISM OF THE CHINESE TORTOISE

THE KUNDALINI – SERPENTS AND DRAGONS

The Kundalini refers to the dormant power or energy present in every human being, and lying like a coiled serpent in the etheric body at the base of the spine. This coiled serpent has been biding its time for ages, waiting for the day when the soul would begin to take charge of its rightful domain—the personality, or the combination of the physical, astral and mental bodies.

This ‘spiritual’ force, while still asleep, is the static form of creative energy which serves to vitalise the whole body. When awakened and beginning to ‘uncoil’, this electric, fiery force proves to be of a spiral nature, and hence the symbolic description of ‘serpent power’.

As the Kundalini force is aroused, it will steadily increase the vibratory action of the etheric centres and consequently also that of the physical, astral and mental bodies through which the vital body finds expression. This animating activity will have a dual effect, firstly by eliminating all that is coarse and unsuitable from the lower vehicles, and secondly by absorbing into its sphere of influence those lofty qualities which will serve to raise the energy content of the vital body of the evolving individual. Read more here.

Spiral background. Sun vector illustration. Circular, radiating abstract shape pattern. Geometric design element series.

See the Sacred Geometry of plants and The Geometry of Flowers

For more info about The Frisians Look at

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The Mill, The Stone and The Water

by Rumi

All our desire is a grain of wheat.
Our whole personality is the milling-building.
But this mill grinds without knowing about it.

The millstone is your heavy body.
What makes the stone turn is your thought-river.
The stone says: I don’t know why we do all this,
but the river has knowledge!

If you ask the river, it says,
I don’t know why I flow.
All I know is that a human opened the gate!

And if you ask the person, he says:
All I know, oh gobbler of bread, is that if this stone
stops going around there will be no bread for your bread-soup!

All this grinding goes on, and no one has any knowledge!
So just be quiet, and one day turn
to God and say: “What is this about bread-making?”

Dit delen:

The Continuous Line:The History and Roots of an Ancient Art Form

Posted on 30 september 2025 by yahya7337

Beantwoorden

The Continuous Line: The History and Roots of an Ancient Art Form

By Mark Siegeltuch

A drawing is simply a line going for a walk.

— Paul Klee

Introduction

Most art students discover or are taught the simple technique of the continuous-line drawing. There is something magical and physically satisfying in the creation of a complete image from a single line. The technique requires little training. Place the drawing instrument on the paper and don’t lift it until the drawing is complete. Ideally, the line ends where it begins without any additions but small details, such as eyes, which can be added later to complete the work.

This paper will examine the history of this technique which is one of man’s oldest art forms, related to string figures (Cats’ Cradles) and more distantly to motifs such as the labyrinth. As with most ancient designs, it carries a deeper meaning which must be teased from the many and varied examples that have survived. The underlying idea has been termed the sutratman or “thread-spirit” doctrine in which the line symbolizes the life force that animates all living beings and which is

eternal and renascent.¹ Like Proteus, the shape-shifter, the line can assume any form until, in the end, it returns to its source. Birth, death, rebirth and the continuity of the social order were all illustrated using the continuous line.

Primitive and Modern Art

Most of the examples in this paper are taken from ancient and tribal cultures but it will help to begin with more modern examples since they illustrate an important element of the continuous-line drawing— motion.

Figure 1: Pablo Picasso, drawing of a horse

In the early part of the 20th century, European artists like Miro, Klee and Picasso rediscovered the continuous-line and used it in their works. It was part of a growing interest in primitive art which reflected itself in different ways. The Cubists were interested in African art, for example, while the Surrealists favored Northwest Coast American Indian art and the arts of the Pacific. Specific forms were borrowed and reused, albeit in far different contexts than the originals. In 1984, the Museum of Modern Art mounted a show on the subject which received a lot of media attention. The juxtaposition of the primitive and modern was instructive but the commentary that followed was not; an avalanche of moralism and political rhetoric that precluded any deeper discussion of the underlying connections that first generated the interest of modern artists in these ancient forms. It was clear that none of the artists were scholars and had little background in primitive art. It was also clear that many of them were superb collectors with an eye for genuine pieces. They may not have understood the meaning of the art they were copying, but they did understand something about the construction of these works and the sensory preferences that lay behind them.

Figure 2: Paul Klee, Irony at Work

A generation earlier, the Bohemian-born Swiss art historian, Siegfried Giedion (1888-1968), did have some thoughts on the subject, which he published in 1948 in Mechanization Takes Command. It was not the most likely place for such a discussion, a few pages within a long book about the mechanization of American life. But Giedion was not your average art historian.

In a section titled “Scientific Management and Contemporary Art” he took up the issue of the redesign of work processes in America, pioneered by Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) and continued and expanded by Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) and his wife, Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972).

The goal of Scientific Management was to analyze the work process to reduce the time it took to accomplish a task and to make the work less stressful. This was done by studying the physical motions of the worker through space and time. Gilbreth tried using a motion-picture camera to analyze movement but it did not make the trajectory of the motion clear enough because it portrayed it only in relation to the entire body.

To accomplish the separation, Gilbreth invented a device of appealing simplicity. An ordinary camera and a simple electric bulb were all he needed to make visible the absolute path of a movement. He fastened a small electric light to the limb that performed the work, so that the movement left its track on the plate as a luminous white curve. This apparatus he called a ‘motion recorder’—Cyclograph.

Figure 3: Motion of a golfer’s swing using a Cyclograph Later, Gilbreth made wire models of these recordings.

These wire curves, their windings, their sinuosities, show exactly how the action was carried out. They show where the hand faltered and where it performed its task without hesitation. Thus the workman can be taught which of his gestures was right and which was wrong.

Giedion was astute enough to realize that problems involving the representation of motion were of particular interest in the first half of the twentieth century to engineers, scientists, and artists alike. The development of the motion picture camera, the automobile and the airplane had registered their affects on the human psyche which had to be worked out separately in these various disciplines. Gilbreth’s wire models closely resemble continuous-line drawings. Their common element is the depiction of motion, traced with a continuous line, a beam of light, or twisted wire in this case.

Figure 4: Wire models of Cyclotron images

Paul Klee was particularly eloquent in his writing and teaching about the role of motion in art. Perspective was no longer enough, the dynamism of process must be conveyed and the continuous line was one way to do this. He experimented with color and with the direction-pointing arrow, soon to be adopted internationally as a symbol of motion and direction.

Figure 5: Paul Klee, Birds Swooping Down and Arrows, Metropolitan Museum of Art

It is motion that links the modern use of this form with ancient examples which were drawn on the ground or laid out in sand or colored powder, often to the accompaniment of music.

Figure 6: Batak sorcerer (datu), Sumatra

It will be our purpose here, to determine as far as it is possible, what the intentions of these early artists were. We will find that they looked to the past rather than the present for their subject matter and inspiration. They were upholders of tradition and in this way, differed radically from modern artists whom Ezra Pound termed, “the antennae of the race.”

Methods of Construction

The American art historian, Carl Schuster (1904-1969), collected continuous-line drawings from many cultures and time periods. To construct such a drawing, an artist usually began with a framework of dots and drew an unbroken line through or around them to form a figure or pattern. The essential element is the unbroken nature of the line and the smooth completion of the image.

Figure 7: Sand drawing of a bird, Quioco, Angola

The guiding dots serve both a symbolic and a practical function. They aid the beginner in constructing the work. Experienced artists often dispense with the guides once they have learned to draw the image smoothly, without hesitation. It will become clear as we progress, that the dots were originally meant to represent joint marks, connected to reanimate the figure. A kind of connect-the-dots exercise with deep spiritual significance which gradually lost its meaning over time, eventually devolving to child’s play.

Figure 8: Head of elephant, Quioco, Angola

Examples

We find numerous examples of continuous-line drawings in Africa among the Bantu-speaking tribes of Angola, Zaire, and Zambia. Paulus Gerdes has documented these drawings, called sona by the Tchokwe, and analyzed the tradition as a whole, both in Africa and elsewhere.

Figure 9: Maze with human figure, Quioco, Angola

Edmund Carpenter remarks, “at least one of these designs [Figure 9] is a maze with a human figure in it. The Quico identify the figure as the body of a slave found in the grass. They say the design of this maze will reveal the real identity of the killer.”² The connection between continuous-line drawings and mazes or labyrinths is a matter of some interest and relates to some of the oldest ideas associated with the form centering around death and rebirth.

Another remarkable set of continuous-line drawings was collected in the early part of the 20th century from the New Hebrides, a Melanesian archipelago, by the anthropologists John Layard, Bernard Deacon, and Raymond Firth. A missionary, Ms. M. Hardacre, added several more examples. The drawings were both religious and secular and depicted a variety of subjects including birds, animals, fish, and plants (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Malekulan sand drawing of a turtle

They were generally drawn for amusement and in some cases, stories were related as the figures were drawn. On the Island of Raga, two sides took turns drawing, each trying to outdo the other.

...knowledge of the art is entirely limited to men; women, of course, may see the designs. The whole point of the art is to execute the designs perfectly, smoothly, and continuously; to halt in the middle is regarded as an imperfection.

The techniques used to draw these complex figures are handed down from generation to generation and each design is practiced assiduously to ensure mastery. Once learned, the skill remains in the body of the practitioner, like dancing or jumping rope.

The methods of construction used in the New Hebrides are common to the tradition wherever it is found. First a patch of sand or earth is made level and smooth, or an area with volcanic dust may be used. Sometimes ashes are spread on the earth to provide a clean drawing surface. Next, the artist draws a framework consisting of lines set at right angles and crossing one another, or a series of small circles arranged in a regular pattern. This preliminary layout serves as a guide for constructing the drawing. The artist then smoothly traces the curves, circles, and ellipses around or through the guides until the figure is completed.

In theory, the whole should be done in a single, continuous line which ends where it began; the finger should never be lifted from the ground, nor should any part of the line be traversed twice. In a very great many of the drawings, this is actually achieved.

In some drawings lines must be retraced to avoid lifting the finger. In others, small details are added to complete the drawing, like a tail feather or eyes. More complex designs may involve several interconnected line drawings. Of particular interest are those New Hebridean designs that are the property of the secret societies and relate to initiation and the mysteries of life after death. In Vanuatu on Malekula, the second largest island in the group, and elsewhere in the New Hebrides, the home of the dead is reached by an arduous journey.

Figure 11: Drawing of Nahal (The Path), New Hebrides

Ghosts of the dead…pass along a ‘road’ to Wies, the land of the dead. At a certain point on their way, they come to a rock…lying in the sea…but formerly it stood upright. The land of the dead is situated vaguely in the wooded open ground behind the rock and is surrounded by a high fence. Always sitting by the rock is a female [guardian] ghost [called] Temes Savsap, and on the ground in front of her is drawn the completed geometrical figure known as Nahal [Figure 11], ‘The Path’. The path which the ghost must traverse lies between the two halves of this figure. As each ghost comes along the road the guardian ghost hurriedly rubs out half the figure. The ghost now comes up but loses his track and cannot find it. He wanders about searching for a way to get past the guardian ghost of the rock, but in vain. Only a knowledge of the completed geometric figure can release him from the impasse. If he knows this figure, he at once completes the half which Temes Savsap rubbed out; and passes down the track through the middle of the figure. If, however, he does not know the figure, the guardian ghost, seeing he will never find the road, eats him, and he never reaches the abode of the dead.

Among the northern peoples of the New Hebrides, the Lambumbu, Legalag, and Laravat, similar ideas prevail only here the land of the dead is called Iambi or Hambi and the geometrical figure, ‘The Stone of Iambi’ (Figure 12). Further, no test is required of the traveling soul. Variants of the story are told in Mewn and among the Big Nambas tribe, where the ghost is known as Lisevsep.

Figure 12: Stone of Iambi, New Hebrides

Initiates in the secret ghost societies such as those on Ambrim are taught these designs so they may enter the Afterworld when they die. They are also part of a larger cycle of rites.

A key dance in the Malekulan cycle of ceremonies represents, simultaneously, a sacred marriage, an initiation rite and, most important of all, the Journey of the Dead. At one point, participants enact a swimming movement to represent the crossing of the channel to the land of the dead. In the final movement, Maki-men form in two rows: then members of the introducing ‘line’, already fully initiated, thread their way between these ranks. This progression of initiates corresponds with the path followed by the dead man through the maze-like design Nahal.

Figure 13: Woman drawing threshold designs, South India

Continuous-line drawings are also common in the southeastern part of India where they still drawn today (Figure 13). The Tamils refer to such drawings as kolams and they are drawn in front of dwellings, normally before sunrise. The woman of the house will smear a bit of ground with cow dung or sweep the threshold and sprinkle it with water to prepare her canvas. In the past, rice powder was run between the fingers to form the design. Quartz powder is used today. Dots or crossed lines are used as a framework and the kolam is formed from a single, uninterrupted line. Traditional designs are strictly geometrical though more naturalistic forms have developed in modern times. Similar designs are also found as tattoos and on mortuary pottery.

Figure 14: Rangoli design of a bird, India

In Northern India, figures called rangoli or rangavalli are drawn in courtyards, on the walls of buildings, and at places of worship. Rangoli designs tend to be more elaborate than kolams and are often multicolored. Elaborate floral or animal designs are drawn using the fingers or brushes. Many of the older designs are geometric, however, and bear the telltale dots and guide lines. Figure 14, a bird, is constructed from a framework of nine crosses. Additional features like tail decorations were added afterwards.

Figure 15: Snake and scorpion, Mesopotamia

The technique was also known in ancient Mesopotamia as evidenced by a number of serpent designs engraved on argillite cylinder seals from the 3rd millennium (Figure 15). While the serpent is not constructed from a continuous line, its shape indicates that the artist was familiar with the dot-and-line method common to the tradition.

Another interesting example from ancient Babylonia is made of clay and appears to be constructed from a single coil. The face is identified as Humbaba, a demon of the underworld who is slain by the epic hero, Gilgamesh.

Figure 16: Clay figure of Humbaba, Babylonia (c. 1800-1600 B.C.)

The maze-like lines of the face part of the common equation of the underworld with the intestines, human or animal. This complex of ideas is very old if we can judge by its distribution and appearance in both the Old and New Worlds. We will return to this idea when we discuss the relationship of the continuous line to mazes and labyrinths.

Figure 17: Celtic knotwork design

Perhaps the most familiar continuous-line drawings are the knotwork designs of Celtic art (Figure 17) that were used to decorate metalwork, stone monuments, and manuscripts like the famous Book of Kells. George Bain, who unraveled the methods used in constructing these complex designs, found their astonishing complexity to be based on a few simple geometrical principles.

Celtic knotwork often symbolizes eternity, the interconnectedness of life, or unbroken spiritual paths, as the lines have no beginning or end.
Spirals can represent cosmic forces, spiritual development, or cycles of birth and rebirth, especially in Insular and Pictish traditions.
Zoomorphic elements—where knots morph into animal forms—may evoke mythic creatures, protective spirits, or ancestral lineage, blending art with storytelling.

Figure 18: Threshold tracing, Isle of Lewis, Scotland

Tangled threid and rowan seed

Gar the witches lose (or lowse) their speed

The example in Figure 18 is missing the guiding dots but a Greek vase from the 8th century B.C. with a similar design is not (Figure 19). The extra dots indicate the artist was imitating a design that was no longer understood. The Greeks viewed barbarian art much in the manner of modern decorators and borrowed and adapted freely.

Figure 19: Proto-Corinthian Greek vase, 8th century B.C.

A related motif dating from at least Bronze Age times is the spiral ornament, found in Greece, Rome, Etruria and among Germanic and Celtic peoples. Spiral fibula were used to close garments while a variety of metalwork designs served as arm bands, diadems and the like (Figure 20). Drawn from a single piece of wire, the spiral forms a continuous path ending where it begins, a trait common to the other art forms we have been discussing.

Figure 20: Bronze spiral arm band, 1600 B.C., Migration Period, Europe

The art historian Ananda Coomaraswamy comments on the symbolism of the spiral fibula.

Drawn from a single piece of wire, the spiral fibula forms a continuous path ending where it begins.

The use of a single line to construct a work of art has a long history as we have seen and examples can be found in a wide variety of media.

Symbolism shapes religious rituals, social identity, and even national icons, allowing communities to share complex ideas through shared visual language.
The study of symbolism reveals how societies articulate meaning, bridge material and spiritual worlds, and encode important knowledge through art and tradition.
George Bain, known as the father of the Celtic art revival, reached out and maintained contact with Ananda Coomaraswamy in the 1940s. Coomaraswamy, an esteemed art historian and philosopher specializing in Indian and Oriental art, was one of the most respected scholarly figures of that time and had a strong interest in Celtic culture throughout his career.
Coomaraswamy admired Bain’s work, and Bain expressed mourning for Coomaraswamy’s passing in the preface to his major book “Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction,” showing a connection that underlined a Celtic-Indian cultural linkage. Their intellectual exchange is regarded as part of a broader cross-cultural dialogue that linked Eastern art traditions and philosophies with Western Celtic revival movement. Core Philosophical Themes in Celtic Tradition
Interconnectedness and Eternity: Celtic art, especially knotwork, symbolizes the endless, interconnected nature of existence. The continuous loops without beginning or end reflect eternal life, unity, and the infinite cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
Cycles of Life and Renewal: Many motifs, such as spirals and the triskele (triple spiral), evoke life cycles, cosmic rhythms, and transformation. These represent the soul’s journey through phases of growth, death, and spiritual renewal, aligning human life with natural and cosmic forces.
Nature and Spiritual Vitality: Celts believed all elements of nature—rivers, rocks, animals, the sun, and the moon—possess spirit and power. This animistic belief is expressed in symbols that honor natural forces and the sacred balance between earth and the cosmos.
Balance and Harmony: The Awen symbol, consisting of three rays, represents spiritual inspiration as well as the balance between opposites such as male/female energies, mind/body, and opposing cosmic forces.
Trinity and Triplicity: Triangular and threefold symbols such as the triquetra emphasize important trinities in Celtic belief: life-death-rebirth, body-mind-spirit, or past-present-future. These forms unify spiritual, natural, and philosophical concepts in a single visual.
Philosophical Role of Celtic Symbols
Symbols were used as tools in rituals, healing, and oral traditions to convey wisdom and cosmic truths.
They acted as spiritual maps for meditation and guides for eternal truths embedded in everyday life.
Their meanings often combine Christian symbolism with pre-Christian pagan beliefs, showing cultural continuity and transformation.
In essence, Celtic traditions and philosophies express a profound spirituality centered on eternal cycles, unity with nature, and the balance of cosmic and human forces, richly encoded in their symbolic art and motifs
these motifs and symbolism is still to be seen in Frisian Crafmanship:

For the Frisian Eternal Knot see The wisdom of Frisian Craftmanship

This symbol appears in Celtic art as interlaced bird motifs serving not just as ornament but as a representation of life’s dual nature and spiritual truths, paralleling similar uses in ancient Indian cosmology and philosophy. Coomaraswamy’s comparative approach highlighted how such motifs are expressions of common archetypes across cultures, embodying spiritual and philosophical ideas through natural imagery.

Cultural and Mythic Contexts: In Celtic and European folklore, blue tits represent good luck, honor, and protection—sometimes regarded as carriers of souls or spirits.

Simorgh

That the meaning of this symbolism was still understood in later periods can be seen in the work of Claude Mellan (fl. 1598–1688), whose remarkable engraving of Christ is composed from a single spiraling line (Figure 21). The Latin words underneath, Formatur unicus una (“By one the One is formed”), refer both to Christ and to the technique used to construct the work.

Figure 21: Claude Mellan engraving, The Face of Christ on the Sudarium.

Dr. Coomaraswamy took up a related motif in “The Iconography of Durer’s ‘Knots’ and Leonardo’s ‘Concatenation’” where he discussed the symbolic meaning of certain knotwork designs found in the engravings of Albrecht Dürer and the works of Leonardo da Vinci.

Figure 22: One of Albrecht Dürer’s “Sechs Noten”

Figure 22 is a wood engraving of Albrecht Dürer’s taken from a series, Sechs Knoten. In each of the six engravings, the central design is constructed from what appears to be a single white line on a black ground. There are actually six intersecting continuous-lines in the central ornament but it is hard to tell without tracing each line. Four smaller knot designs, all of them identical, occupy the corners. In each case, one or more continuous lines form an extremely complex series of designs that resemble lace work or embroidery patterns. The function of this artistic tour de force is uncertain, but the designs may be patterns intended for use in other media.

Figure 23: Leonardo Da Vinci’s Concatenation

In the opinion of many scholars, Dürer’s knot designs are variations on a copper engraving attributed to Leonardo Da Vinci that bears the words, “Academia Leonardi Vinci” within the central medallion (Figure 23).

Leonardo de Vinci, Albrecht Durer and Michelangelo were engaged in a renaissance of the Byzantine forms of Celtic knotwork. Vasari says that “Leonardo spent much time in making a regular design of a series of knots so that the cord may be traced from one end to the other, the whole filling a round space.” The example of his work shown herein [Figure 23] cannot be the one that Vasari had traced its line from end to end, for it has a number of lines. The student can find how many. The designs by these most famous artists were engraved and printed for the use of painters, goldsmiths, weavers, damaskeeners and needleworkers.¹

Jessica Hoy and Kenneth C. Millett performed a mathematical analysis of Leonardo’s Concatenations and the Dürer copies and found that they were all composed of multiple continuous lines, or “links” as they are classified in mathematics. Figure 24 highlights the components.

Figure 24: Components parts of Durer’s first knot engraving (after Hoy & Millett)

The technique of combining continuous lines is found throughout the tradition as a whole and it adds to the mystery of these constructions since they appear to be composed of a single line. A great deal of variety is possible using this method.

Coomaraswamy noted the similarity between Leonardo’s Concatenation, as it is called, and the cosmic diagram known as a mandala.

The significance of Leonardo’s “decorative puzzle”—which from an Oriental viewpoint must be called a mandala—will only be realized if it is regarded as the plane projection of a construction upon which we are looking down from above.

The dark ground represents the earth, which is associated metaphysically with the substantial, potential aspects of manifestation. The white line is the Spirit, the essential, active aspect of manifestation whose source is the summit or center (Heaven). The four corner ornaments are the cardinal directions and reflect the seasons (time), and the older conception of a quartered universe held together by the Spirit. The whole construction is summarized best in the words of Dante (Paradiso XXIX.31-6) to whom the meaning of these esoteric symbols was familiar.

Co-created was order and inwrought with the substances; and those were the summit in the universe wherein pure act was produced: Pure potentiality held the lowest place; and in the midst potentiality with act strung such a withy as shall never be unwound.¹

Did Leonardo understand the symbolic meaning of his own work or was he merely copying an older design?

Leonardo’s Concatenation is a geometrical realization of this “universal form.” He must have known Dante, and could have taken from him the suggestion for this cryptogram. But there is every reason to believe that Leonardo, like so many other Renaissance scholars, was versed in the Neo-Platonic esoteric tradition, and that he may have been an initiate, familiar with the “mysteries” of the crafts. It is much more likely, then, that Dante and Leonardo both are making use of the old and traditional symbolism of weaving and embroidery.²

String Figures

String figures are known on every inhabited continent and show evidence of the greatest antiquity. Americans are most familiar with the game called Cat’s Cradle in which a string is looped in a cradle-like pattern on the fingers of one person’s hands and transferred to the hands of another to form a new pattern. In fact, Cat’s Cradle is but one variant of an art that while simple in principle, is far more complex in practice.

To create a string figure, a loop of string, fiber, hair, sinew, bark, or other pliable material is manipulated to form patterns using the hands, feet, mouth, knees and even teeth (Figure 25). The art is practiced alone or by several people. In the hands of a skilled practitioner, the loop of fiber can be manipulated to create complex figures that transform to illustrate a story or song or to prepare the viewer for a sudden denouement. Completed patterns may represent objects in the natural environment like plants and animals, activities such as hunting or fishing, or geometric patterns such as diamonds or zigzags.

Figure 25: Method of constructing a string figure

There are also tricks in which the completed pattern resolves suddenly into a continuous loop, or “catches,” in which a figure tightens suddenly around the finger of an unsuspecting participant.

Though many practice the art, male and female, young and old, a master of the form must combine the legerdemain of the professional magician with the singing and story-telling art of the bard or shaman. String figures are at once an amusement, a lesson to help the young remember, a means to illustrate stories and myths, and a doorway for initiates into the mysteries of death and rebirth.

Starting with the assumption that the string represents the Spirit, the artist in string is in a position to re-create the world in microcosm. Like Proteus or the other shape-shifters of mythology, the string can be transformed from one figure into another. It is the drama of human existence that is on display. When the game is over, everything returns to the endless loop so the play may begin anew.

String figures are closely related to continuous-line drawings. The loop of string is the three-dimensional equivalent of the continuous line, used to create a pattern in the sand. In some cultures, completed string figures are actually removed from the hands and placed on the ground, emphasizing this connection. Both forms are used for storytelling and both once had deeper meanings centered on death and rebirth.

Among the Cahuilla Indians, the string figure played the same role as the sand drawing did among the Malekulans.

Moon also taught the people to play what we call Cat’s Cradle — a string figure game and a predictive technique necessary to know in order for the soul, it was said, to get into Telmekish, the land of the dead (Hooper 1920: 360). They had to know many figures because as the soul traveled to the land of the dead they had to tell Montakwet, the shaman-person who guarded the entrance to Telmekish, what they meant. If they couldn’t tell him, they would not be admitted. The same game, a favorite recreation for Cahuilla women, could predict the sex of a child.¹ A similar story is related concerning the residents of the Gilbert Islands.

Prayers and incantations accompanied the making of string figures in the Gilbert Islands, as in other cultures. In Gilbertese mythology two notables were associated with string figures, Na Ubwebwe and Na Areau the Trickster (Maude & Maude 1958:9). Not only did Na Ubwebwe use sympathetic magic in the assistance of creation, but he also smoothed the way for the dead. At the ceremony known as tabe atu (the lifting of the head) an individual described as the “straightener of the path” performed a series of string figures beside the corpse. The figures included Tangi ni Wenei (The Wailing Over the Dead), (Maude & Maude 1958:25). On the way to the land of the departed ancestors the spirit meets a woman with the beak of a bird, Nei Karamakuna. Unless the spirit has been tattooed, in which case the tattoo marks are pecked out, the eyes will be pecked out instead. Naturally most Gilbertese take the precaution of being tattooed. Soon after meeting Nei Karamakuna the spirit meets Na Ubwebwe who makes a series of string figures with him or her. The spirit must make the series without a mistake until the first figure, called Na Ubwebwe, appears again. Only then can the spirit “pass on.”

The authors conclude that whether the sequence for one player used at the raising of the heavens, or the series performed by two persons during the tabe atu ceremony, “the figure of Na Ubwebwe is made as a rites de passage connected with death.”

Figure 26: Framework for constructing continuous-line drawings and string figures

String figures also resemble continuous-line drawings in their manner of construction (Figure 26). Instead of guiding dots drawn on the ground, the finger joints (or other body parts) serve as the guides around which the string passes. The essential point is that the guiding dots used to construct continuous-line drawings were once understood as body joints. Joint marks are the link between the various versions of the thread-spirit doctrine. The line is the Spirit connecting the joints and reanimating the being.

Carl Schuster was particularly interested in a continuous-line drawing that appears in a Shang Dynasty inscription from the 13th century B.C. (Figure 27). According to Carl Henzte, it represents an archaic form of the Chinese character, hsi, “to bind” which comprises two elements: a simplified hand (shown at the top) and a skein of silk thread.² There is also a two-handed version of the inscription that developed into the Chinese character luan, “to bring into order,” by adding another element that means “speech”. A similar development led to the modern Chinese character, tzu, meaning “concept, speech, expression, written composition.

Figure 27: Shang Dynasty inscription, China

It would seem that the ancient Chinese associated the idea of spoken and written communication with the endlessly looped cord. Henzte explains:

Therefore, something must have been spoken while the skein of silk was brought into order; or else the putting into order of the skein was in itself an action somehow equivalent to a sign-language or the expression of a concept. This reminds us inevitably of the thread-games [string figures’ or Cats’ Cradles], known to us especially from Polynesia…. Indeed, the function of the thread-game is in a sense mnemonic, in so far as the production of each figure was accompanied by the recital of a specific chant or mythological story, which was then acted out. Today the thread-game is unknown in China. But was it unknown in ancient times? … The I-Ching (Book of Changes) mentions a kind of knot writing.¹

Was the development of writing derived from the use of mnemonic devices like continuous-line drawings and string figures? Schuster found some evidence to support this contention among the Bataks of Indonesia and more significantly in the writing or proto-writing found at Mohenjo-Daro (Figure 28). Are the flanking figures in the other drawings hands?

Figure 28: Copper plates from Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan This looped design has a wide distribution (Figure 29).²

Figure 29: Looped continuous-line drawings

**Double Happiness** (simplified Chinese: 双喜; traditional Chinese: 雙喜; pinyin: *shuāngxǐ*; Vietnamese: *song hỉ*) sometimes translated as **Double Happy**

Number	Description
85	Magical design from a Batak manuscript, Sumatra
86	Design on indigo cloth, Gashaka, Cameroon
87	Inscribed copper plate, Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan. 13th century B.C. (?)
88	Egyptian seal, 1800-1600 B.C.
89	Ground drawing, Quioco, Angola
90	Sand tracing, Malekulan, New Hebrides

Relationship to Mazes and Labyrinths

Continuous-line drawings are related to the labyrinth both in the stories and rituals that surround them and in their manner of construction. Before any serious discussion of the labyrinth is possible it is first necessary to distinguish it from a maze. A labyrinth is unicursal; it is impossible to get lost in one since its path, despite its wanderings, leads inexorably to the center (Figure 30).

A maze is full of twists, turns, and dead ends. It is specifically designed to confuse the poor souls caught within it and prevent them from finding their way out. The Labyrinth of Minos was really a maze or Theseus would have had no need of Ariadne’s thread to find his way. The confusion seems to be an old one.

Figure 30: Labyrinth design, India

The maze is clearly the older of the two forms. Maze-like patterns have been found on cave walls from prehistoric times (Figure 31). The subterranean world with all its sinuous passages and dead ends is the original model for the maze.

Figure 31: Engraved maze on a tomb lintel, Ireland

The purpose of a maze—in contrast to a labyrinth—was to keep the dead from coming back to bother the living. Claude Lévi-Strauss relates a relevant story in Tristes Tropiques:

As we drew nearer to the trees, we reached the object of our visit—a gravel pit where peasants had recently discovered fragments of pottery. I felt the thick earthenware, which was unmistakably of Tupi origin, because of the white outer coating edged with red and the delicate black tracery, representing, so it is said, a maze intended to confuse the evil spirits looking for the human remains which used to be preserved in these urns.¹

In many Meso-American cultures it was thought that the wicked could be mazed in the underworld so their souls would not return. The Aztecs, like the Mayas, believed that while the celestial house— of which their own houses were models—was woven in a straight, orderly, and measured way, the “evil knotted earth” was a twisted and tangled web in which one could become ensnared.

The Chilam Balam of Tizimin refers to the “many roads that lead to death” during the times of injustice, and contrasts the obviously straight and vertical “good roads” by which the dead can ascend quickly to heaven, with the “evil roads” that descend, spreading out on the earth. Ultimately, the latter led to the land of the dead in the thick of the underworld, a place described by Sahagún as having “no outlets and no openings.”
In general, the Meso-American deities or monsters of the underworld were depicted with nets and snares useful for catching evil-doers or other persons unworthy of reaching heaven.

Sometimes, the undulant forms that describe the underworld are aquatic plants; in other instances, the material cannot be identified. What seems to have mattered was not the substance, but its unruly condition. The Popol Vuh describes the jaguars of hell, for example, as “all tangled up”…squeezed together in a rage,” while one Aztec god was named Acolnahuácatl “The One From the Twisted Region,” according to Caso.

The twisted underworld was also associated with the human intestines, an idea that is not as strange as it might seem. If the underworld is conceived as the body of a god, or a god in animal form, and death is a kind of devouring, then the dead must pass through the intestines of this primordial creature. The analogy is also based on the coiled and snake-like appearance of the human intestines and on the purifying role they play within the body. The Aztec goddess of lust and sexual perversity, Tlazolteotl, was called “the eater of ordure.” Those who confessed to her had their sins transformed by her digestive system into fertilizer.³ We are also told that the Aztec underworld was a kind of digestive system located deep within the “bowels of the earth” (an expression we still use) where dwelled monstrous crocodiles not unlike those found in Egyptian or Sumerian mythology.

Figure 32: Babylonian tablets used for divination

Another aspect of the same complex of ideas can be found in the use of animal or human entrails for telling the future. Generally it was the liver and intestines that were used. The Etruscan and Roman haruspices are the best-known examples but the practice was once common worldwide.

The Babylonians divined in this manner and recorded the results on the back of baked clay tablets (Figure 32). A number of these have survived from about 1000 B.C. They depict maze-like patterns on the front; one is inscribed ekal tirani, “palace of the intestines.”1 In ancient Egypt, the dead king was eviscerated and his entrails put into Canopic jars. According to W. Jackson Knight, the bearers of the Canopic jars within the pyramids performed evolutions symbolizing the twisting path of the intestines they were carrying.

If the maze is a sort of flypaper for unclean souls, the labyrinth has the opposite purpose, to reunite the soul with the One, whether conceived as God or a First Ancestor. The labyrinth design itself appears to be of late origin, Bronze Age or a little earlier, but it is clearly an ancestor of the continuous-line drawings and string-figure designs we saw earlier. Those in the know were taught these designs or figures in order to facilitate their passage into the Other World after death.

The origins of the labyrinth are lost to us. It may have begun as an esoteric symbol whose meaning and method of construction were restricted to initiates. If this is the case, it probably existed for millennia before it appeared in a public setting. The earliest dateable labyrinth is from Pylos, Greece (c. 1200 B.C.), a product of the Minoan-Mycenaean culture (Figure 33).³ It was found on the back of a clay tablet the front of which was inscribed with Linear B writing.

Figure 33: Labyrinth on a Linear B tablet, Pylos, Greece

Examples from the Camonica Valley in the Italian Alps may be older than those in Greece but they cannot be dated (Figure 34). Many are really spirals or debased forms, but a number show a human or demonic figure in the center, an important element in the tradition.

Figure 34: Petroglyph, Camonica Valley, Italy

In certain cases a demon is represented in abstract and stylized manner, as a labyrinth whose twistings end at the center of the image in two dots standing for eyes; a third dot sometimes marks the mouth or the nose. These are probably monsters comparable to those of ancient Greece; the legend of the Minotaur doubtless draws its origins from this kind of concept. Sometimes the monster is pictured within the labyrinth; sometimes he seems to be one with it, to be himself the labyrinth. These figures are very common in the rock carvings of Scandinavia, and they constitute one of the principle subjects of the Atlantic megalithic art which stretches from Galicia in Spain to Brittany and Ireland.

Carl Schuster found a suggestive example jabbed on a ladle excavated in Southern Denmark and dated from the early 3rd millennium (Figure 35). Not a true labyrinth, it is close enough to suggest that its creator was familiar with the design but didn’t have the skill to re-create it. This is thoroughly in keeping with the history of the motif.

Figure 35: Ladle with jabbed decoration, Denmark

The procedure is simple—literally child’s play in many parts of the world. Still, relatively few persons, seeing the design drawn according to this scheme for the first time, are able to reproduce it accurately. The blunders which most people make today are precisely the blunders that have been made for thousands of years, in many parts of the world. In fact, this motif has been more often bungled than made correctly—and those blunders are themselves illuminating.

A variety of simplified forms exist, closer to mazes or gapped circles. The most common mistake is the enlargement of the entrance, significant in itself, for many labyrinths were constructed to be entered.

The labyrinth motif is widely distributed and is found in Europe, India, Southeast Asia, parts of Oceania (often in a debased form), North America, Mexico, and perhaps South America—though definitive proof is lacking. Labyrinths constructed of rocks or boulders were once common, particularly in Scandinavia. Many are large enough to enter and were probably used for rituals or games in which the participants walked or danced along the path between the boulders.

Examples from North America, such as those found among the Yaqui Indians of Sonora, Mexico, and the Pima of Arizona differ in no significant way from European examples (Figure 36). Some are incised on rocks while other larger examples are constructed of rocks or boulders. In more recent times, the Pima, Hopi, and Papago used the design on trays and baskets. We don’t know how old the motif is in North America because rock carvings cannot be dated but Carl Schuster believed that the design was part of the cultural heritage of these peoples and not learned from Europeans.

Figure 36: Sandstone carving of labyrinth, Arizona

The labyrinth, like the maze, is associated with the underworld and the afterlife. In many traditions, it is the home of some kind of monster or primordial ancestor who acts as a gatekeeper, restricting access to the Other World.

People who make the labyrinth often describe it as the refuge of some legendary rogue. The Finns have such a story. So do the Pima of Arizona. In India, the labyrinth is known as the domain of the demon Ravana, while the Bataks of Sumatra explain their version of this design as the refuge of the trickster Djonaha. In the Caucasus, the labyrinth is known as the dwelling of Syrdon, a nart or legendary ancestral hero. And in Crete, it served as the lair of the Minotaur, that monster—half-bull, half- human—who was given an annual tribute of seven youths and seven maidens.

As we have seen, what is clear from the idea of a tangled and intestine-like underworld is that the monster does not so much live inside the labyrinth, as it is the labyrinth (Figure 37). That is to say, passage through its body is required to effect rebirth. A few examples will suffice.

Figure 37: Design on a woven grass mat, Sri Lanka

The Seneca Indians described Kaistoanea, a two-headed serpent (shown here with one head) and denizen of the underworld who devoured the inhabitants of a hilltop village, except for one warrior and his sister (Figure 38). They killed him and he vomited forth his victims alive.

Figure 38: Drawing titled “Seneca Legend of Bare Hill”

A related story from the Kwakiutl of Cape Scott tells of a sea monster that swallowed tribesmen when they were out canoeing. One day, a chief walking near the seashore meets Kosa, a young girl, and asks her to fetch water for him to drink. She is afraid of the sea monster but agrees. As soon as she agreed to obey, she put her Sisiutl belt on, and the vampire instantly killed her. The chief, a wizard, sang an incantation which caused the beast to burst open and disgorge all the people it had devoured. Coming back to life, they limped forward or tripped sideways; their bones were all mixed up. But the chief soon sorted them out, and they became the present Koskimo tribe.

The mixed-up bones of the tribesmen are an important element in the story as the joints are the connecting links between bones and we have seen how the joints must be reconnected by the Spirit line to achieve rebirth.

T’ao-tieh (Glutton), a mythic bear or tiger according to the ancient Chinese, vomited forth “the whole of humanity from the abyss of Chaos (Figure 39).

Figure 39: Vessel depicting T’ao-tieh, China

In Australia, the Walbiri describe the mythic serpent Warombi, which travels underground and is the source of life (Figure 40). He swallows initiates and returns them as men.

Figure 40: Pictograph of Warombi, Australia

We have two versions of the story in the Judeo-Christian tradition: Jonah is reborn from the belly of the whale crying, “Salvation is of the Lord” and Christ in the Harrowing of Hell, held open the monster’s jaws to release Adam and Eve and all the righteous who had died since the beginning of the world (Figure 41).

Figure 41: Wooden stall carving of the Harrowing of Hell, medieval, France

The challenge is to pass through this primordial creature without being destroyed.¹ Rites of initiation prepare the young for the ordeal and ensure a safe passage to the Other World upon death. This generally involves the learning of some kind of esoteric information of which the labyrinth design seems to be a remnant. The relationship of the labyrinth to continuous-line drawings, Cats’ Cradles, and other sacred diagrams is revealed most clearly in its method of construction.

(The “jaws of death” that find later expression in folklore as the clashing rocks, revolving doors, double-edged swords orother guardian pairs protecting the entrance to Heaven. See Coomaraswamy, “Symplegades,” Selected Papers/His Life and Work, vol. II, pp. 521-44, and Guardians of the Sundoor.)

Constructing the Labyrinth

It was the American art historian Carl Schuster who first understood that the key to the labyrinth lay in its method of construction. His extensive research revealed several strategies for drawing the design. The most common employs a preliminary framework built from a cross, four arcs, and four dots within each arc. Once the framework is in place, the rest is simple (Figure 42):

Figure 42: Drawing the labyrinth using a framework

Connect any of the four ends of the cross with the nearest end of an arc, either on the right or on the left; and thereafter connect the following dot with the next position on the other side of the diagram, and so on in orderly progression until the design is completed.

There is a satisfying rhythm to the process as the hand completes successive movements from one side of the diagram to the other. The method is easy to learn and execute, which accounts for its widespread diffusion and survival.

The design is drawn in precisely this way by school children in Finland, Sweden & Ireland; housewives in southern India; Batak sorcerers in Sumatra; and American Indians in southwestern United States, Mexico & Brazil. There is good reason to believe it has been drawn in this way, though not exclusively this way, wherever the motif is known.

Despite its ubiquity, Schuster was not convinced that this was the original method for drawing the labyrinth, feeling that the arcs and dots were really just guidelines for novices who were learning to make the figure. Ever resourceful, he had a friend place an article in the Irish Press (January 9, 1952) asking readers if they knew how to draw the labyrinth depicted on the famous Hollywood Stone, in County Wicklow (Figure 43).

Figure 43: Hollywood Stone, County Wicklow, Ireland

He received twenty responses; all but one used the cross-arc-dots method, but the lone exception proved to be of some importance. A man named William Denton wrote and recalled that as a boy, an elderly Dubliner who knew all kinds of tricks and puzzles had shown him and his friends how to draw the figure using just two lines (Figure 44). He included a drawing illustrating the method. Schuster was intrigued and recalled a prior discussion with John Layard.

The old Dubliner’s method was the method suggested to Schuster by John Layard, when Carl showed him the four-dot method, common in so many parts of the world. …Layard pointed out that one essential feature of all such designs is that they be drawn by means of continuous lines, without raising the hand.

Figure 44: Drawing in a letter from William Denton to Carl Schuster

While the Old Dubliner’s method is not a true continuous-line drawing, it is closer in spirit than the cross-arc-dots method. “To me the Dublin story rings true. It’s disturbing, of course, that we seem to have only one person as a carrier of this tradition, but I still believe it is a bona fide survival of one ancient method of drawing the labyrinth.”²

Schuyler Cammann, former Professor of East Asian Studies at the University of Pennsylvania and an old friend of Schuster’s, also felt that the dots and arcs were not part of the original design. He pointed out that the labyrinth could be constructed without the arcs, by using a cross and four dots and drawing four lines (Figure 45).

Figure 45: Four-line method for drawing the labyrinth

This would help to explain the familiar Bronze Age motif of the cross with four dots, often found on personal rings and protective amulets in the Near East and Central Asia (Figure 46). The same designs also appear as rock carvings in Shipaulovi, Arizona, in the same vicinity as labyrinth designs. Cammann thought this might be an abbreviated form of the labyrinth, understood only by those who shared the secret of its construction.

Figure 46: Abbreviated form of labyrinth

A last method for drawing the labyrinth starts with a cross but includes twelve dots, three within each quarter (Figure 47). Four lines are needed to complete the figure, one from each end of the cross.

Figure 47: 12-dot method for drawing the labyrinth

The twelve dots represent the primary joints that make up the human body. In keeping with the sutratman doctrine, the connection of these joints by means of a Spirit-line amounts to a re-animation or “re-membering” of an ancestor figure in whatever form it is conceived (human, reptilian, or avian) (Figure 48).

Figure 48: Joint-marked figures

Dismemberment and Reintegration

It was Carl Schuster’s contention that joint marks—often in the form of faces or eyes—represented the souls of primary ancestors. To achieve reunion with one’s ancestors and thereby qualify for rebirth, all the joints must be connected with a continuous line to form an image of the First One or Original Ancestor.

Thus a genealogical diagram, in the form of a human image, serves as a path to be followed into the Afterworld, by tracing one’s origins, as it were, through the pattern of one’s ancestors, commonly shown as joint marks.

The notion of a dismembered First Ancestor or other religious figure from whom all beings are descended is among the oldest and most widespread of human beliefs. Commenting on the task of the Masonic Masters to “diffuse the light and to gather that which is scattered,” Réne Guénon makes reference to the Hindu tradition.

‘what has been scattered’ is the dismembered body of the primordial Purusha who was divided at the first sacrifice accomplished by the Devas at the beginning, and from whom, by this very division, were born all manifested beings….The Purusha is identical with Prajapati, ‘the lord of beings brought forth’, all of whom have issued forth from him and are thus considered in a certain sense his progeny.

The same story is told of Osiris and Dionysius whose reintegration forms the basis of their respective religious traditions. One need only remember that cannibalism lies at the root of the Vedic and Christian rituals of communion.

By devouring, or as we may phrase it in the present connection, drinking Makha-Soma, Indra appropriates the fallen hero’s desirable qualities by an incorporation that is at the same time sacrificial and Eucharistic, cf. John VI.56, “He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him.”

In earlier times, the “host” was treated as an honored guest, later to be sacrificed and eaten. The Latin word hostis (enemy) is related to hospes (guest), expressing this ambiguity. More directly, the related Sanskrit root ghas means to eat, consume, or destroy.

And what is the essential in the Sacrifice? In the first place, to divide, and in the second to reunite. He being One, becomes or is made into Many, and being Many becomes again or is put together again as One. The breaking of bread is a division of Christ’s body made in order that we may be “all builded together in him.”

The Hebrew Kabalists preserve the tradition in a slightly different but recognizable form.

…though here it is no longer really a question of either sacrifice or of murder, but rather of a kind of ‘disintegration’, the consequences of which are, moreover, the same—it was from the fragmentation of the body of Adam Kadmon that the Universe was formed with all the beings that it contains, so that these are like particles of this body, their reintegration into unity corresponding to the reconstitution of Adam Kadmon, who is ‘Universal Man’..

The re-membering of an ancestor figure is at once an act of personal, social, and cosmic reintegration, as well as a preparation for the life beyond. As a ritual, it found expression in a wide variety of forms.

Joint-marks varied in number, twelve being a complete set (shoulders, elbows, wrists, hips, knees, ankles). Generally fewer were shown. Ideally all were reached in clockwise order. When the last joint was reached, and image was turned and the ritual repeated; or, if the image was a ground drawing, the performer turned, as in hopscotch. The first sequence ‘re-membered’ the Guardian of the Lower World; the second ‘re-membered’ the Guardian of the Upper World.

In terms of social organization, division by twelve was quite common in antiquity. In the Old Testament (Exodus 24:4), Moses erects an altar surrounded by twelve pillars, representing the twelve tribes of Israel. A similar story is repeated in the Book of Joshua (4:1-24) where twelve stones are erected at Gilgal in memory of the crossing of the Jordon on dry land. The Hebrew word gilgal comes from a root word meaning “rolling” or “turning” so that the stones might be considered as spokes in a wheel. There are actually a number of cities so named in the Old Testament and one, north of Bethel, was the scene of Elijah’s departure to heaven in a fiery chariot (2 Kings 2:1-11).

In Kabalistic thought, each Hebrew tribe is associated with a zodiacal sign. The idea of a nation comprising twelve tribes was known to a wide variety of peoples including the Greeks and Celts, and Christ had twelve disciples, adumbrated by the twelve fruits of the Tree of Jesse.

Astronomical and calendrical preoccupations were superimposed on this older idea of dismemberment starting in the 4th millennium. Birth and death mark the passage of time and body joints arranged in a circular fashion became both clocks and calendars.

The Christian Yakut of Siberia created peg-calendars within the framework of a two-headed bird (Figure 49). A peg was moved from hole to hole, clockwise, to mark the passage of the week. The circular form was meant to represent the sun, placed in the chest of the solar bird that guards the sun door or entrance to Heaven. The two heads represent darkness and light, night and day, death and life. Clocks were given the same form. The division of the equinoctial day into twelve hours of light and twelve hours of darkness is attributed to the Egyptians but the roots are clearly much older.

Figure 49: Wooden peg calendar, Yakut, Siberia

The same pattern was reflected astronomically as evidenced in the once common belief that the constellations represent a dismembered ancestor, whose body was strewn across the sky. The twelve signs of the zodiac were conceived as body joints that the sun touched in turn to complete a yearly cycle. The cycle was personified as the World Man or World Year in some traditions.

Prajapati is, of course, the Year (samvatsara, passim); as such, his partition is the distinction of times from the principle of Time; his “joints (parvani)” are the junctions of day and night, of the two halves of the month, and of the seasons ….In the same way Ahi-Vrtra, whom Indra cuts up into “joints (parvani, RV iv.19.3, viii.6.13, viii.7.23, etc.)” was originally “jointless” or “inarticulate (aparvah, RV iv.19.3),” i.e., “endless (anantah).”

We find an echo of these ancient ideas in the words of Shakespeare’s Hamlet (Act 1, Scene 5):

The time is out of joint, O cursed spite, That ever I was born to set it right.

A medieval astrological chart shows the same underlying pattern (Figure 50).

...a cosmic figure marked with twelve zodiacal signs divided into four categories according to Season & Direction. Each sign, representing a ‘temperament’ from its category, marked a location corresponding to a primary joint. Such signs were also conceived as constellations, scattered across the heavens. Re-membering this dismembered figure meant reassembly of its members: the tribal body made One; reembodiment of God and Cosmos.²

Figure 50: Medieval astrological chart, Germany.

Anatomical Man
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry

Initiates must know how to complete the labyrinth design—or a related diagram, string figure, or other exercise—in order to ensure a safe passage into the Afterworld and a successful rebirth. This initiation is itself conceived as a kind of death and rebirth for which the participant must be prepared. The figure to be drawn is at once a mythical ancestor, a devouring creature, and the path to the Other World. The monster is the labyrinth in the most basic sense; death the devourer who swallows and regurgitates initiates. To pass through the beast one moves from joint to joint much as one completes the diagram. Many Chinese dragons are joint-marked in this way.

Mircea Eliade describes a Koryak tale “in which a girl lets a cannibal monster eat her so that she can quickly descend to the underworld and return to earth, with all the rest of the cannibal’s victims, before the ‘road of the dead’ closes.” He goes on to note that:

this tale preserves, with astonishing consistency, several initiatory motifs: passage to the underworld by the stomach of a monster; search for innocent victims and their rescue; the road to the beyond that opens and shuts in a few seconds.

Mircea Eliade, Shamanism, pp. 251-252. Eliade also documents the role of ritual dismemberment in many shamanic practices around the world. The shaman’s body must be replaced with a new one to enable entry to the other world and subsequent return to this one.

A Sufi Commentary on the Tao Te Ching: The Way and Its Virtue

Posted on 25 september 2025 by yahya7337

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This extraordinary book contains a full translation of the Tao Te Ching from Chinese, along with an extensive Sufi mystical commentary on each verse by the renowned scholar, Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr, who includes along with his own commentary, passages from the Diwan of Hafiz, Rumi’s Mathnawi, Sa’adi, Nizami, Farid Al-Din Attar, Shabastari, and Bayazid Bastami.

The Prophet, upon him be peace, said, “Seek knowledge, even unto China.”

In 1974, the oldest extant copy of Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching (6-4th century BCE) was unearthed at Xi’an along with the ceramic warriors guarding the tomb of the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang. In the 1970s, Professor Toshihiko Izutsu—the Japanese Islamicist, philosopher and linguist—collaborated in Tehran with Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr to translate this treasure into English. Dr. Nasr went on to put it into Persian adding a Sufi commentary which was recently published in Iran. This has now been translated into English with annotations by Mohammad H. Faghfoory.

The scholar recognized as the “Father of World Religions”, Huston Smith, refers to the Tao Te Ching as a “Testament to humanity’s at-home-ness in the universe, [which] can be read in half an hour or a lifetime….”

Imagine having a foundational world scripture like the Tao Te Ching explained by such a renowned Sufi scholar and internationally recognized spiritual authority as Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Passages whose subtleties are normally inaccessible to the Western mind become clear. Through Dr. Nasr’s insightful use of verses from such Persian luminaries as Rumi, Hafiz, and Attar, the reader is introduced to the “world” behind this world.

This book contains the first Sufi commentary, by Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, on a key non-Abrahamic sacred text (the foundational scripture of Taoism) that will be highly relevant to anyone interested in the spiritual universality shared by the world’s religions.

Dr. Nasr’s ability to present complex religious and spiritual concepts and terms in a simple and readable language makes this book an ideal textbook for any course on religions of the world, comparative religious studies, Sufism, or Taoism. In the recent years leading up to this publication, Dr. Nasr has been teaching this work at George Washington University in Washington, DC.

Scholars in the fields of Islamic and Chinese studies, comparative religions, and Sufism will find that this volume expands their horizons. Lay readers will see it as enlightening; seekers of the truth will find it spiritually uplifting.

Find the book here

Excerpt:

Chapter One

The way of which one can speak as “way” is not the eternal Way (Tao)
The Name that can be named is not the eternal Name.
The Nameless is the beginning of Heaven and Earth;
While the named is the mother of the Ten Thousand Things.
In the state of eternal Non-Being we see the invisible depth of the Tao;
While in the state of Being, we see the determinations of the Tao.
These two are originally the same;
But they are called differently as they reveal themselves.
In that particular dimension in which the two are the same, they are called mystery, the mystery of all mysteries,
the gateway of all subtle things.

In the first verse of this discourse, the transcendence of the Tao is emphasized, and it is established that anything that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao. This is because by speaking of the Tao one has placed a delimitation (qayd) on that which is transcendent, infinite and beyond definition and description. Therefore, any name that we assign to It is not the eternal Name, because by giving a name to that Absolute Reality we in fact delimit It. In its supreme meaning, the Tao is the Divine Reality, which has no name nor description.

About the contributors:

Lao Tzu

Lao Tzu was a semi-legendary Chinese philosopher and author of the Tao Te Ching, one of the foundational texts of Taoism, on which this new translation/commentary is based. Traditional accounts say he was born in the 6th-century BC state of Chu during China’s Spring and Autumn period (c. 770 – c. 481 BC). The Chinese text used for this translation was unearthed in Xi’an along with the famed ceramic warrior in 1974.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, University Professor of Islamic Studies at the George Washington University, is an international authority on Islamic philosophy, mysticism, art, and science as well as comparative religion and religion and ecology. He is the author of dozens of books and hundreds of articles and the subject of a number of books, edited collections, and articles. A small sample of his recent publications include The Garden of Truth: The vision and Promise of Sufism (2007), Islam’s Mystical Tradition (2007), Islam in the Modern World (2010), In Search of the Sacred (2010), and Metaphysical Penetrations (a translation of Mulla Sadra’s Kitab al-Masha’ir. (2014).

“The greatest honor the academic world grants to a living philosopher is the dedication of a volume of The Library of Living Philosophers to his work and thought; and the most prestigious recognition a thinker can receive in the field of natural theology is an invitation to deliver the annual Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh. In the years 2000, the twenty-eighth volume of The Library of Living Philosophers was devoted to the philosophy of Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, placing him in the company of Einstein, Sartre, Russell, Whitehead, and other luminaries of twentieth-century intellectual life. Fourteen years previously, Dr. Nasr had delivered the Gifford Lectures, and the text of these lectures became his magnum opus, “Knowledge and the Sacred.”

Toshihiko Izutsu (Translator from the Chinese to English)

Toshihiko Izutsu (1914 –1993) was a Japanese scholar who specialized in Islamic studies and comparative religion. He took an interest in linguistics at a young age, and came to know more than thirty languages, including Arabic, Hebrew, Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Pali, Hindustani, Russian, Greek, and Chinese. He is widely known for his translation of the Qurʾān into Japanese.

Mohammad H. Faghfoory (Translator from Persian to English)

Mohammad H. Faghfoory is professor of Islamic Studies at the George Washington University and the director of the MA Program in Islamic Studies. In addition to advising graduate students’ research and theses, he teaches courses on Qur’an and Hadith, Islamic Political Thought, Sufism, Islamic Philosophy and Theology, Shi‘ite Islam, Islamic Art and Spirituality, Islam, and other related courses.

He received his Master’s degrees in history and Middle East studies from the University of Illinois, and a Master’s degree and a PhD in political science and Middle East studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He has taught at the University of Tehran and has been a visiting scholar at the University of California-Los Angeles, Islamic Manuscripts Specialist at Princeton University, and at the Library of Congress, and adjunct professor of Middle East History at Mary-Washington University in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Dr. Faghfoory has written, translated, and edited twelve books, numerous book chapters, articles, and book reviews (see Publications section for details). He has lectured extensively in the United States, Europe, and the Middle East, and participated in interfaith dialogue organized by American media.

The Universal Message

As Dr. Nasr beautifully demonstrates, the meeting of these two great wisdom traditions reveals that the mystic’s path is universal, transcending cultural and religious boundaries while honouring the unique beauty of each tradition. In our troubled times, this synthesis offers profound healing, reminding us that all authentic spiritual paths ultimately lead to the One Reality that is both the source and destination of our seeking.

“The Tao that can be spoken is not the eternal Tao” echoes the Islamic teaching that Allah is beyond all human comprehension, yet paradoxically, both traditions affirm that this Ultimate Reality can be known through direct spiritual experience and the purification of the heart.

On the Nature of the Tao

Dr. Nasr illuminates the profound depth of this central concept:

“The title of this book, which is the most foundational source of the Taoist tradition and one of the best-known sacred texts of the religions of the world, has several meanings. Even though its title is usually translated as The Book of the Way and Its Virtues, it includes the word ‘Tao,’ which has no synonym in any other language. The Tao is not just the way to reach the Truth, it is also the Absolute Truth Itself, termed al-Ḥaqq in the Islamic tradition, meaning ‘the Real’ or ‘the Divine Truth.’ At the same time, It is also the Way to attain perfection and to reach the Absolute Truth. Moreover, the Tao is the Principle of all things in the hierarchy of being, and that which determines the nature of all beings and the principles of their existence. The Tao is also the source of virtue and salvation. It has both ontological and ethical dimensions, and is both individual and social, human and cosmic, practical, theoretical and existential. For these reasons the term ‘Tao’ is used in the Persian text and is not translated. The Tao is the guide that leads human beings to the highest plane of the Truth, which is nothing but the Tao Itself. Thus, the Tao is the fundamental key for understanding reality in all degrees of Its manifestation.”

This profound understanding reveals why our exploration of these parallel wisdom streams offers such rich nourishment for the soul’s journey toward Ultimate Reality.

Sufi Light on Tao Te Ching ~ The Book of the Ineffable Reality and Virtue by Pir (Lao Tsu) Li Er

1.
Tao Te Ching is a Spiritual Classic. Tao or Dao means Way, Ineffable Reality, Te or De means Virtue and Ching means Great Book or Classic. Thus ‘Tao Te Ching’ can be called: The Great Book of Reality and Virtue, or The Book of Ineffable Reality and True Virtue. Here simply translating ‘Te’ as virtue will not do justice, its healing virtue which brings man back to his original nature.

It is believed that the classic was inspired to be written down around 4th or 6th Century BC, so we are talking about a very old Spiritual Classic and something that ancient to have successfully been transmitted to us without being lost is not a light matter. This itself can be viewed as a proof of authenticity and energy of this timeless classic.

It is written by a Sage by the name Li Er Boiang, also known as Li Dan. Because he was Pir of his time, his honorary title was Lao Tsu which means ‘Old Master,’ the same meaning is conveyed in the word Pir in Sufism.

Tao Te Ching has 81 chapters, all brief, yet they carry profound message about the Reality. The Book introduce concepts about the Ultimate Reality in a language suitable for his time as well as statements concerning practical spirituality and wisdom for traveling the Spiritual Path which enable one to live in harmony and in a state of tranquility

Metaphysically Tao refers to Reality as It is. Psychologically it refers the way how human nature is constitute, the original nature of man, a deep dynamic structure of our being. Ethically its means the way human being must conduct with others to be at peace and harmony. Spiritually it refers tot the guidance that is offered to us, the method of searching for the truth that is handed down by the great sages, seers, divinely inspired communicators of the path, the way of inner work. All of these meanings of Dao / Tao is ultimately united and one.

Tao Te Ching’s appeal is broad and its meaning is deep. It speaks to each at our own level of understanding while inviting for search for level of insight and experience that are not yet within our comprehension.

It is a sacred text. To read it is not only to see ourselves as we are, but to glimpse a greatness extending far beyond our knowledge of ourselves and and the universe we live in. The Tao Te Ching deals with what is permanent in us, it speaks of a possible inner greatness and an equally possible inner failture which are both indelibly written into our very structure as human being.

Under its gaze we are not American or Chinese or European. We are that being, Man, uniquely called to occupy a precise place in the cosmic order, no matter where or in what era we live. It is a work of metaphysical psychology. (credit)

an imaginal Portrait of Wise Elder (Pir) Lao Tsu Li Er, may Allah be pleased with him

2.
Timeless spiritual classics such as Tao Te Ching transmits its message continuously and depending on who is reading and receiving it and with what level of understanding, it continues to open itself up to help us see beyond into the deeper mysteries. This is a characteristic of authentic and inspired spiritual transmission.

How does the message of Tao Te Ching illume itself against the universal message of the Sufis? Can the message of the Tao Te Ching can also be found reflected in the message of the Quran, the Source that Sufis hold so dearly?

In order to find suitable translation of Tao Te Ching in English, I have used several sources to have a more holistic appreciation of its mystical nature. The citation of the Quranic verses are indicated in the number within parentheses.

CHAPTER-1 OF TAO TE CHING

This chapter speaks about Tao as an Ineffable Reality, the Ultimate Reality about which anything expressed falls short, any comparison out of the construct of the limited mind is an injustice to its ineffableness. Some translation speaks of it as Path, as Existence Itself. Here is a composite translation:

The Ineffable (Tao), about which is spoken, is not the eternal Ineffable.
A name for the Unnameable, is but a name.
The Unnameable is what makes everything what it is,
By naming things you divide the Indivisible.

Only one who gives up all his desires can experience the Indivisible Essence,
One who still cherishes desires, will experience the Manifestations.
Both will see the same reality, but experience it differently.

The unity of Essence and Manifestations is said to be the mystery.
Mystery of mysteries, the door to all wonders.

Here are some reflection of the above passage and parallel phrases from the Quran to provide hint that both are speaking about the Ultimate Reality with reverence to It’s mystical nature.

La ilaha – Negate all false names. Only that Ultimate Reality now bear witness that the Unnameable alone Is. Shahida-Llahu ‘AnnaHu La ilaha illa Hu. (3:18) Who is more wrong than one who invent a lie, a conjecture about the Ultimate Reality? (6:93) Thus whatever one speak about the Ultimate Reality never can do justice. Subhanahu wata’ala ‘ammayasifoon – Limitless is Hu in glory, and sublimely exalted beyond anything that men may devise by way of definition (6:100). Subhanahu wataAAala AAamma yaqooloona AAuluwwan kabeera – Exalted and Greater beyond what they say is Hu! (17:43) Huwa as-Samad, the Ultimate Reality is Eternal. al-Qayyum – the Peerless. Huwa Allahu Ahad – That One is Indivisible (112:1).

That Reality is both al-Zahir and al-Batin, The Manifest and the Essence. It is both the First and the Last, al-Awwal wa al-Akhir. (57:3) Whatever in the Heaven and Earth are in a constant state of awe from the great wonder of the Great Mystery (57:1).

CHAPTER 4 OF TAO TE CHING

Chapter 4 describe the metaphysical reality and reminds of its nature of Emptiness, the Great Void It is sometime called.

The Tao is like an empty vessel:
Never emptied and never be filled.
It is like the eternal void:
filled with infinite possibilities.

It is hidden but always present.
Not given birth by any.
It is more ancient than the concept of God.

The Great Emptiness, The Ultimate Void is al-La. The Eternal Void. Hidden, al-Batin and yet az-Zahir, always Present. Lam yalid walam yoolad – The Ultimate Reality neither begets nor is born. (112:3). It is al-Qadim, the Most Ancient, more ancient that even revelations, conceptions about or of God. Al-Qadim is one of the Divine Names and Attributes of Allah which means the infinite-most antecedent to all else!

CHAPTER 6 OF TAO TE CHING

Chapter 6 again continues to shed light on the Supreme Reality.

The Supreme Spirit of the perennial spring is said to Ever-Living, the Mysterious One. The Mysterious One is typical of the source of heaven and earth. It is continually and endlessly issuing and without effort.

an alternative translation is this:

The Tao is called the Great Mother:
empty yet inexhaustible,
it gives birth to infinite worlds.

Subtle, barely seen but always Present.
Endless flow of inexhaustible energy.

An appreciation of the Divine Feminine embedded deeply within Islamic Tradition is required here. The two most invoked Divine Name ar-Rahman and ar-Rahim both goes back to the root word R-H-M, meaning Womb. Both the Divine Qualities, ar-Rahman and ar-Rahim are Mercy, Compassionate, Universal Loving Kindness are generally manifested in the world as natural qualities of a mother. The frequently used invocation Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim, it is invocation of the Divine Feminine Principles of the Ultimate Reality. That Reality is also al-Hayy, the Ever-Living; ar-Rauf – the Motherly Loving and Tender; as-Samad – the Inexhaustible, al-Latif, Most Subtle, al-Baqi – the Ever Present, the Ever Lasting, al-Halim – the One Who is Motherly Forbearing.

CHAPTER 12 OF TAO TE CHING

Apart from speaking of the Highest Reality, in Tao Te Ching Lao Tsu also disseminate teachings on practical spirituality, on how to live to return back to the original nature from which arises tranquility of the heart, clarity of mind, deep peace of soul. 12th Chapter speaks of the dangers from the manifestation of the apparent and transitional world and how a true human being who wish to master himself and world should conduct his, her life. Finally it also speaks of the quality of the Heart that a true human being should attain.

This is a translation by Stephen Mitchell (1988):

Colors blind the eye.
Sounds deafen the ear.
Flavors numb the taste.
Thoughts weaken the mind.
Desires wither the heart.

The Master observes the world
but trusts his inner vision.
He allows things to come and go.
His heart is open as the sky.

Made beautiful are material and worldly things of desire, these are the pleasures of the present world’s life; but the Source of all has the excellent return with It. (3:14) True vision is not derived from ocular vision alone, but from the inner vision of the heart. Indeed it is not the eyes that grow blind, but it is the hearts, which are within the bosoms, that grow blind. (22:46) Only that person will be successful who has a sound Heart (qalbin salim). (26:89)

CHAPTER 14 OF TAO TE CHING

This again takes us back to the Highest Reality, Lao Tsu continue to help us see different facets of this Reality and dispenses his priceless wisdom.

Stephen Mitchell’s translation again:

Look, and it can’t be seen.
Listen, and it can’t be heard.
Reach, and it can’t be grasped.

Above, it isn’t bright.
Below, it isn’t dark.
Seamless, unnamable,
it returns to the realm of nothing.
Form that includes all forms,
Image without an image,
subtle, beyond all conception.

Approach it and there is no beginning;
follow it and there is no end.
You can’t know it, but you can be it,
at ease in your own life.

Just realize where you come from:
this is the essence of wisdom.

That Highest Reality about which Quran conveys the following, almost matching each phrase:

No vision can grasp Him, but Its grape is over all vision (6:103) The Highest Reality’s voice is not heard directly except through veil, revelation or human messenger as medium. (42:51) Most Subtle is It, wa huwa al-Latif (6:103). Beyond all conception – subhanahu ‘aamma yushrikoon. Only Allah knows Allah, It can not be known by other than it. Yet when one is consumed by It, It becomes the very eyes, the very hand, the very ear of the servant, of the human being. So one can be It, or rather said in more truthful way, one is granted the permission to become a more perfect Image of It, a more perfect representative (khalifa) of Hu. Then and only then it is said, you didn’t throw but Allah threw. (8:17) It is al-Badi, the Wonderful Originator, al-Mubdi, the Beginner of us and all that exists.

Hu in Arabic – pointing to the Ultimate Reality beyond conception, definition or comparison

Hu Allahu Akbar – Ever Greater, Ever Transcendent beyond any conception and construct is Hu.

May the Ineffable keep us on the tao (as-sirat al-mustaqim) that leads to the Tao
May we realise and become what is possible
May we be granted a heart open as the vast sky.

The One Who Plans and Rules the Universe

// Sadiq M. Alam / Dhaka, Bangladesh

# Further:
* Tao Te Ching Introduction – Read By Jacob Needleman
* Side by Side Comparison of Tao Te Ching Translations
* Alan Watts – Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching
* Dr Wayned Dyer – Tao Te Ching
* Full Audio Book of Tao Te Ching
* Do the Dao by Wayne Dyer
* Tao Te Ching: An All-New Translation by Lao Tzu, Laozi
* The Perfect Man According to Taoism and Its Relevance with Sufism: A Brief Survey
* Pondering Chinese Taoist and Arab/Persian Sufi ideas of individuality and immortality
* The Way of Life by Lao Tsu (PDF)

Against the Machine: On the Unmaking of Humanity

Posted on 11 september 2025 by yahya7337

Beantwoorden

How a force that’s hard to name, but which we all feel, is reshaping what it means to be human

In Against the Machine, “furiously gifted” (The Washington Post) novelist, poet, and essayist Paul Kingsnorth presents a wholly original―and terrifying―account of the technological-cultural matrix enveloping all of us. With insight into the spiritual and economic roots of techno-capitalism, Kingsnorth reveals how the Machine, in the name of progress, has choked Western civilization, is destroying the Earth itself, and is reshaping us in its image. From the First Industrial Revolution to the rise of artificial intelligence, he shows how the hollowing out of humanity has been a long game―and how your very soul is at stake.

It takes effort to remain truly human in the age of the Machine. Here Kingsnorth reminds us what humanity requires: a healthy suspicion of entrenched power; connection to land, nature and heritage; and a deep attention to matters of the spirit. Prophetic and poetic, Against the Machine is a spiritual manual for dissidents in the technological age. This title will be released on September 23, 2025.

Three decades of work finally comes together:

Above, you can see an interview with me that was recorded three years ago, when I was in the thick of writing the essays that would become this book, and also when I was in the thick of my facial hair. Perhaps I might not say everything in quite the same way now (or perhaps I would: it’s hard to know until the camera starts rolling) but this is a good enough distillation of the story I’m trying to tell. If you don’t want to buy a 300-page book, you can just watch this instead. Or you can do both, which of course is strongly encouraged.

My main emotion today is probably relief. I’ve said before that this book, at least in terms of my non-fiction work, is in some ways my magnum opus. It’s a distillation of all the themes that have obsessed me since I was a naive young road protester in the early 1990s. In some ways, much of my life since then, including my spate editing The Ecologist in the late 1990s, my time running the Dark Mountain Project in the 2010s and in much of my freelance writing, has involved trying to work out what was really going on out there, and what I actually thought about it. I asked these questions in many of my previous books, such as One No, Many Yeses, Real England, Uncivilisation and Confessions of a Recovering Environmentalist.

This book draws all those themes together in as cohesive and coherent a way as I can manage. I won’t be writing anything like it again: as far as I’m concerned, this is it for me and the Machine. We’ve been dancing this strange, mutually hostile tango for three decades now, and while some I’m sure of these themes will continue to make an appearance here, there will be no more great non-fiction tomes on the subject from me. I’m over it, as the kids say. I’ve done my best, and this is it. Everything – well, most things – that I want to say about the tightening net that surrounds us is in here. From now on, if anyone asks me about this ‘Machine’, I’m just going to point them to this book.

What comes next? Well, I’ll have more to say on that later in the year after my whirl of book promotional events is over. For now, I just want to want to say thank you to all of the readers who supported this work by subscribing to the Abbey, reading my ramblings, commenting on them, challenging me when I’m wrong, pointing me towards things I should read, and encouraging me to keep going when I felt lost in the weeds. It’s not an exaggeration to say that this book would not have happened without this Substack and its readers, especially those of you who have been with me from the early days – and even more especially, my super-generous Founder Members. Thank you all. I mean it.

And with that, I’m off on the first stop of a three-week American speaking tour. Tonight I’ll be launching the book at a live event at the UnHerd Club in London before heading off to the US. If you can’t make it, you can watch it live here at 7pm UK time (I don’t know if you have to be an UnHerd subscriber to watch, but it doesn’t look like it). Details of all my public events over the next two months can be found here.

If any of you feel inclined to pray for my health and safety along the way, I’d be very grateful. It’ll be a gruelling trip, but hopefully rewarding one. Perhaps I’ll meet some of you on the road.

Path to the Maypole of Wisdom

A Choice for Spiritual Ethics,Virtues and Uprightness in our times

As a Dry Leaf

Traditional Learning

Watch: William Chittick discusses the Traditional Approach to Learning

Well, the Thing is…

1. The Matter of Things

1.1. Frisians introducing the thing to the world

1.2. The medieval thing

2. Other Thingies

3. Things That Matter

Further reading

“Virtue is the correct use of free will.”

– The Body is Like Mary

Between the Square and the Compass: The Myth of Fuxi and Nüwa

An Introduction to Viking Art

Who is Gelmir For?

The Frisian Thread of Wisdom

Triangular grid of overlapping circles

Cultural significance

Near East

Europe

Form

Dressing

– Name

– Thread-Spirit: The Symbolism of Knotting and the Fiber Arts

– Lo-Shu , the labyrinth and the Tortoise

Frisia Coast Trail

The Mill, The Stone and The Water

Dit delen:

The Continuous Line:The History and Roots of an Ancient Art Form

A Sufi Commentary on the Tao Te Ching: The Way and Its Virtue

The Universal Message

On the Nature of the Tao

Sufi Light on Tao Te Ching ~ The Book of the Ineffable Reality and Virtue by Pir (Lao Tsu) Li Er

How does the message of Tao Te Ching illume itself against the universal message of the Sufis? Can the message of the Tao Te Ching can also be found reflected in the message of the Quran, the Source that Sufis hold so dearly?

Against the Machine: On the Unmaking of Humanity